This report contains the collective views of an international group of experts and does not necessarily represent the decisions or the stated policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organization, or the World Health Organization.

Environmental Health Criteria 231

First draft prepared by Dr Zoltán Adamis, József Fodor National Center for Public Health, National Institute of Chemical Safety, Budapest, Hungary; and Dr Richard B. Williams, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, and Regional Office for the Americas of the World Health Organization

Published under the joint sponsorship of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organization, and the World Health Organization, and produced within the framework of the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals.

World Health Organization Geneva, 2005

The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), established in 1980, is a joint venture of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the International Labour Organization (ILO), and the World Health Organization (WHO). The overall objectives of the IPCS are to establish the scientific basis for assessment of the risk to human health and the environment from exposure to chemicals, through international peer review processes, as a prerequisite for the promotion of chemical safety, and to provide technical assistance in strengthening national capacities for the sound management of chemicals.

The Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC) was established in 1995 by UNEP, ILO, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, WHO, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization, the United Nations Institute for Training and Research, and the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (Participating Organizations), following recommendations made by the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development to strengthen cooperation and increase coordination in the field of chemical safety. The purpose of the IOMC is to promote coordination of the policies and activities pursued by the Participating Organizations, jointly or separately, to achieve the sound management of chemicals in relation to human health and the environment.

WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Bentonite, kaolin, and selected clay minerals.

(Environmental health criteria ; 231)

1.Bentonite - toxicity 2.Kaolin - toxicity 3.Aluminum silicates - toxicity 4.Environmental exposure 5.Risk assessment I.International Programme for Chemical Safety II.Series

ISBN 92 4 157231 0       (LC/NLM classification: QV 65)

ISSN 0250-863X

©World Health Organization 2005

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ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA FOR
BENTONITE, KAOLIN, AND SELECTED CLAY MINERALS

NOTE TO READERS OF THE CRITERIA MONOGRAPHS

Every effort has been made to present information in the criteria monographs as accurately as possible without unduly delaying their publication. In the interest of all users of the Environmental Health Criteria monographs, readers are requested to communicate any errors that may have occurred to the Director of the International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, in order that they may be included in corrigenda.

Environmental Health Criteria

PREAMBLE

Objectives

In 1973 the WHO Environmental Health Criteria Programme was initiated with the following objectives:

1. to assess information on the relationship between exposure to environmental pollutants and human health, and to provide guidelines for setting exposure limits;
2. to identify new or potential pollutants;
3. to identify gaps in knowledge concerning the health effects of pollutants;
4. to promote the harmonization of toxicological and epidemiological methods in order to have internationally comparable results.

The first Environmental Health Criteria (EHC) monograph, on mercury, was published in 1976, and since that time an ever-increasing number of assessments of chemicals and of physical effects have been produced. In addition, many EHC monographs have been devoted to evaluating toxicological methodology, e.g., for genetic, neurotoxic, teratogenic and nephrotoxic effects. Other publications have been concerned with epidemiological guidelines, evaluation of short-term tests for carcinogens, biomarkers, effects on the elderly and so forth.

Since its inauguration the EHC Programme has widened its scope, and the importance of environmental effects, in addition to health effects, has been increasingly emphasized in the total evaluation of chemicals.

The original impetus for the Programme came from World Health Assembly resolutions and the recommendations of the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment. Subsequently the work became an integral part of the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), a cooperative programme of UNEP, ILO and WHO. In this manner, with the strong support of the new partners, the importance of occupational health and environmental effects was fully recognized. The EHC monographs have become widely established, used and recognized throughout the world.

The recommendations of the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development and the subsequent establishment of the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety with the priorities for action in the six programme areas of Chapter 19, Agenda 21, all lend further weight to the need for EHC assessments of the risks of chemicals.

Scope

The criteria monographs are intended to provide critical reviews on the effect on human health and the environment of chemicals and of combinations of chemicals and physical and biological agents. As such, they include and review studies that are of direct relevance for the evaluation. However, they do not describe every study carried out. Worldwide data are used and are quoted from original studies, not from abstracts or reviews. Both published and unpublished reports are considered, and it is incumbent on the authors to assess all the articles cited in the references. Preference is always given to published data. Unpublished data are used only when relevant published data are absent or when they are pivotal to the risk assessment. A detailed policy statement is available that describes the procedures used for unpublished proprietary data so that this information can be used in the evaluation without compromising its confidential nature (WHO (1990) Revised Guidelines for the Preparation of Environmental Health Criteria Monographs. PCS/90.69, Geneva, World Health Organization).

In the evaluation of human health risks, sound human data, whenever available, are preferred to animal data. Animal and in vitro studies provide support and are used mainly to supply evidence missing from human studies. It is mandatory that research on human subjects is conducted in full accord with ethical principles, including the provisions of the Helsinki Declaration.

The EHC monographs are intended to assist national and international authorities in making risk assessments and subsequent risk management decisions. They represent a thorough evaluation of risks and are not, in any sense, recommendations for regulation or standard setting. These latter are the exclusive purview of national and regional governments.

Content

The layout of EHC monographs for chemicals is outlined below.

• Summary — a review of the salient facts and the risk evaluation of the chemical
• Identity — physical and chemical properties, analytical methods
• Sources of exposure
• Environmental transport, distribution and transformation
• Environmental levels and human exposure
• Kinetics and metabolism in laboratory animals and humans
• Effects on laboratory mammals and in vitro test systems
• Effects on humans
• Effects on other organisms in the laboratory and field
• Evaluation of human health risks and effects on the environment
• Conclusions and recommendations for protection of human health and the environment
• Further research
• Previous evaluations by international bodies, e.g., IARC, JECFA, JMPR

Selection of chemicals

Since the inception of the EHC Programme, the IPCS has organized meetings of scientists to establish lists of priority chemicals for subsequent evaluation. Such meetings have been held in Ispra, Italy, 1980; Oxford, United Kingdom, 1984; Berlin, Germany, 1987; and North Carolina, USA, 1995. The selection of chemicals has been based on the following criteria: the existence of scientific evidence that the substance presents a hazard to human health and/or the environment; the possible use, persistence, accumulation or degradation of the substance shows that there may be significant human or environmental exposure; the size and nature of populations at risk (both human and other species) and risks for environment; international concern, i.e., the substance is of major interest to several countries; adequate data on the hazards are available.

If an EHC monograph is proposed for a chemical not on the priority list, the IPCS Secretariat consults with the Cooperating Organizations and all the Participating Institutions before embarking on the preparation of the monograph.

Procedures

The order of procedures that result in the publication of an EHC monograph is shown in the flow chart on p. xii. A designated staff member of IPCS, responsible for the scientific quality of the document, serves as Responsible Officer (RO). The IPCS Editor is responsible for layout and language. The first draft, prepared by consultants or, more usually, staff from an IPCS Participating Institution, is based on extensive literature searches from reference databases such as Medline and Toxline.

The draft document, when received by the RO, may require an initial review by a small panel of experts to determine its scientific quality and objectivity. Once the RO finds the document acceptas a first draft, it is distributed, in its unedited form, to well over 150 EHC contact points throughout the world who are asked to comment on its completeness and accuracy and, where necessary, provide additional material. The contact points, usually designated by governments, may be Participating Institutions, IPCS Focal Points or individual scientists known for their particular expertise. Generally some four months are allowed before the comments are considered by the RO and author(s). A second draft incorporating comments received and approved by the Director, IPCS, is then distributed to Task Group members, who carry out the peer review, at least six weeks before their meeting.

The Task Group members serve as individual scientists, not as representatives of any organization, government or industry. Their function is to evaluate the accuracy, significance and relevance of the information in the document and to assess the health and environmental risks from exposure to the chemical. A summary and recommendations for further research and improved safety aspects are also required. The composition of the Task Group is dictated by the range of expertise required for the subject of the meeting and by the need for a balanced geographical distribution.

EHC PREPARATION FLOW CHART

The three cooperating organizations of the IPCS recognize the important role played by nongovernmental organizations. Representatives from relevant national and international associations may be invited to join the Task Group as observers. Although observers may provide a valuable contribution to the process, they can speak only at the invitation of the Chairperson. Observers do not participate in the final evaluation of the chemical; this is the sole responsibility of the Task Group members. When the Task Group considers it to be appropriate, it may meet in camera.

All individuals who as authors, consultants or advisers participate in the preparation of the EHC monograph must, in addition to serving in their personal capacity as scientists, inform the RO if at any time a conflict of interest, whether actual or potential, could be perceived in their work. They are required to sign a conflict of interest statement. Such a procedure ensures the transparency and probity of the process.

When the Task Group has completed its review and the RO is satisfied as to the scientific correctness and completeness of the document, it then goes for language editing, reference checking and preparation of camera-ready copy. After approval by the Director, IPCS, the monograph is submitted to the WHO Office of Publications for printing. At this time a copy of the final draft is sent to the Chairperson and Rapporteur of the Task Group to check for any errors.

It is accepted that the following criteria should initiate the updating of an EHC monograph: new data are available that would substantially change the evaluation; there is public concern for health or environmental effects of the agent because of greater exposure; an appreciable time period has elapsed since the last evaluation.

All Participating Institutions are informed, through the EHC progress report, of the authors and institutions proposed for the drafting of the documents. A comprehensive file of all comments received on drafts of each EHC monograph is maintained and is available on request. The Chairpersons of Task Groups are briefed before each meeting on their role and responsibility in ensuring that these rules are followed.

WHO TASK GROUP ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA FOR BENTONITE, KAOLIN, AND SELECTED CLAY MINERALS

A WHO Task Group on Environmental Health Criteria for Bentonite, Kaolin, and Selected Clay Minerals met at Bradford University, Bradford, United Kingdom, from 18 to 22 October 2004. The meeting was opened by Professor Jeffrey Lucas on behalf of the University of Bradford and Dr A. Aitio, Programme for the Promotion of Chemical Safety, WHO, on behalf of the IPCS and its three cooperative organizations (UNEP/ILO/WHO). The Task Group reviewed and revised the draft monograph and made an evaluation of the risks for human health and the environment from exposure to bentonite, kaolin, and other clays.

The first draft was prepared by Dr Zoltán Adamis from the József Fodor National Center for Public Health, National Institute of Chemical Safety, Budapest, Hungary, and Dr Richard B. Williams from the US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, and Regional Office for the Americas of the World Health Organization. The second draft was also prepared by the same authors in collaboration with the secretariat, which incorporated comments received following the circulation of the first draft to the IPCS contact points for Environmental Health Criteria monographs.

Dr A. Aitio was responsible for the overall scientific content of the monograph.

The efforts of all who helped in the preparation and finalization of the monograph are gratefully acknowledged.

Risk assessment activities of the International Programme on Chemical Safety are supported financially by the Department of Health and Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, United Kingdom, Environmental Protection Agency, Food and Drug Administration, and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, USA, European Commission, German Federal Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, Health Canada, Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, and Swiss Agency for Environment, Forests and Landscape.

Task Group Members

Dr Zoltán Adamis, József Fodor National Center for Public Health, National Institute of Chemical Safety, Budapest, Hungary

Prof. Diana Anderson, University of Bradford, Bradford, United Kingdom

Dr Richard L. Attanoos, Llandough Hospital, Cardiff, United Kingdom

Dr Tapan Chakrabarti, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nehru Marg, India

Dr Rogene Henderson (Co-chair), Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA

Dr F. Javier Huertas, CSIC Estacion Experimental del Zaidin, Granada, Spain

Prof. Gunnar Nordberg (Co-chair), Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden

Prof. Salah A. Soliman, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt

Prof. Helena Taskinen (Rapporteur), Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland

Dr Richard B. Williams, formerly US Environmental Protection

Agency, Washington, DC, and Regional Office for the Americas

of the World Health Organization

Secretariat

Dr Antero Aitio, International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

Ms Pearl Harlley, International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Bentonite is a rock formed of highly colloidal and plastic clays composed mainly of montmorillonite, a clay mineral of the smectite group, and is produced by in situ devitrification of volcanic ash. In addition to montmorillonite, bentonite may contain feldspar, cristobalite, and crystalline quartz. The special properties of bentonite are an ability to form thixotrophic gels with water, an ability to absorb large quantities of water, and a high cation exchange capacity. The properties of bentonite are derived from the crystal structure of the smectite group, which is an octahedral alumina sheet between two tetrahedral silica sheets. Variations in interstitial water and exchangeable cations in the interlayer space affect the properties of bentonite and thus the commercial uses of the different types of bentonite. By extension, the term bentonite is applied commercially to any clay with similar properties. Fuller’s earth is often a bentonite.

Kaolin or china clay is a mixture of different minerals. Its main component is kaolinite; in addition, it frequently contains quartz, mica, feldspar, illite, and montmorillonite. Kaolinite is made up of tiny sheets of triclinic crystals with pseudohexagonal morphology. It is formed by rock weathering. It has some cation exchange capacity.

The main components of common clay and shale are illite and chlorite. Illite is also a component of ball clays. Illite closely resembles micas, but it has less substitution of aluminium for silicon and/or partial replacement of potassium ions between the unit layers by other cations, such as hydrogen, magnesium, and calcium.

Quantitative measurement of airborne dust containing aluminosilicates is most commonly gravimetric. The methods used for the identification and quantification of aluminosilicates include X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, differential thermal analysis, electron diffraction, and infrared spectroscopy.

Montmorillonite is ubiquitous at low concentrations in soil, in the sediment load of natural waters, and in airborne dust. Biodegradation and bioaccumulation in the food-chain appear minimal, if they occur at all, and abiotic degradation of bentonite into other minerals takes place only on a geological time scale.

Major uses of bentonite include binding foundry sand in moulds; absorbing grease, oil, and animal wastes; pelletizing taconite iron ore; and improving the properties of drilling muds. Speciality uses include serving as an ingredient in ceramics; waterproofing and sealing in civil engineering projects, such as landfill sites and nuclear waste repositories; serving as a filler, stabilizer, or extender in adhesives, paints, cosmetics, and medicines, as a carrier in pesticides and fertilizers, and as a bonding agent in animal feeds; clarifying wine and vegetable oil; and purifying wastewater. The uses of montmorillonite-type Fuller’s earth overlap those of bentonite.

Use of kaolin dates back to the third century BC in China. Today it is mined and used in significant quantities for numerous industrial uses. Its most important use is in paper production, where it is used as a coating material. In addition, it is used in great quantities in the paint, rubber, plastic, ceramic, chemical, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics industries.

Common clay and shale, of which illite is often a major component, are used mainly in the manufacture of extruded and other bricks, portland and other cements, concrete blocks and structural concrete, and refractories. Highway surfacing, ceramic tiles, and ceramics and glass are other important uses.

In view of the widespread distribution of bentonite in nature and its use in an enormous variety of consumer products, general population exposure to low concentrations is ubiquitous.

There is limited information on occupational exposure to bentonite dust in mines, processing plants, and user industries. The highest reported values for total dust and respirable dust concentrations were, respectively, 1430 and 34.9 mg/m³, although most values were below 10 mg/m³ for total dust and below 5 mg/m³ for respirable dust.

Kaolin is a natural component of the soil and occurs widely in ambient air. Kaolin mining and refining involve considerable exposure, and significant exposure is also expected in paper, rubber, and plastic production. Quantitative information on occupational exposure is available for a few countries and industries only. Respirable dust concentrations in kaolin mining and processing are usually below 5 mg/m³.

No information was available on the kinetics or metabolism of montmorillonite, kaolinite, or illite as they occur in most occupational settings.

Deposition and kinetics of radiolabelled fused montmorillonite after inhalation exposure have been studied in mice, rats, dogs, and humans. Deposition in the nasopharynx increases with particle size and is lower in dogs than in rodents. Tracheobronchial deposition was low and independent of animal species and particle size. Pulmonary deposition was considerably higher in dogs than in rodents and decreased with increasing particle size.

The removal of particles from the lungs took place by solubilization in situ and by physical clearance. In dogs, the main mechanism of clearance was solubilization; in rodents, the mechanism of removal was mainly physical transportation. The clearance by mechanical removal was slow, especially in dogs: the half-time was initially 140 days and increased to 6900 days by day 200 post-exposure.

In humans, there was a rapid initial clearance of 8% and 40% of aluminosilicate particles that were, respectively, 1.9 and 6.1 µm in aerodynamic diameter from the lung region over 6 days. Thereafter, 4% and 11% of the two particle sizes were removed following a halftime of 20 days, and the rest with half-times of 330 and 420 days.

Ultrafine particles (<100 nm) have a high deposition in the nasal area; they can penetrate the alveolar/capillary barrier.

An important determinant of the toxicity of clays is the content of quartz. The presence of quartz in the clays studied hampers reliable independent estimation of the fibrogenicity of other components of clays.

Single intratracheal injection into rodents of bentonite and montmorillonite with low content of quartz produced dose- and particle size-dependent cytotoxic effects, as well as transient local inflammation, the signs of which included oedema and, consequently, increased lung weight. Single intratracheal exposures of rats to bentonite produced storage foci in the lungs 3–12 months later. After intratracheal exposure of rats to bentonite with a high quartz content, fibrosis was also observed. Bentonite increased the susceptibility of mice to pulmonary infection.

There are limited data on the effects of multiple exposures of experimental animals to montmorillonite or bentonite. Mice maintained on diets containing 10% or 25% bentonite but otherwise adequate to support normal growth displayed slightly reduced growth rates, whereas mice maintained on a similar diet with 50% bentonite showed minimal growth and developed fatty livers and eventually fibrosis of the liver and benign hepatomas (see below).

In vitro studies of the effects of bentonite on a variety of mammalian cell types usually indicated a high degree of cytotoxicity. Concentrations below 1.0 mg/ml of bentonite and montmorillonite particles less than 5 µm in diameter caused membrane damage and even cell lysis, as well as functional changes in several types of cells. The velocity and degree of lysis of sheep erythrocytes were dose dependent.

Kaolin instilled intratracheally produces storage foci, foreign body reaction, and diffuse exudative reaction. After high doses of kaolin (containing 8–65% quartz), fibrosis has been described in some studies, whereas at lower kaolin doses, no fibrosis has been observed in the few available studies.

Information is very limited on the toxicity of illite and non-existent on the toxicity of other components of other commercially important clays. Intratracheally instilled illite with unknown quartz content induced alveolar proteinosis, increased lung weight, and caused collagen synthesis. Illite had limited cytotoxicity towards peritoneal macrophages and was haemolytic in vitro.

No adequate studies are available on the carcinogenicity of bentonite. In an inhalation study and in a study using intrapleural injection, kaolin did not induce tumours in rats. No studies are available on the genotoxicity of clays.

Single, very limited studies did not demonstrate developmental toxicity in rats after oral exposure to bentonite or kaolin.

General population exposure to low concentrations of montmorillonite and kaolinite, the main components of bentonite and kaolin, respectively, and other clay minerals is ubiquitous. There is no information on the possible effects of such low-level exposure.

Long-term occupational exposures to bentonite dust may cause structural and functional damage to the lungs. However, available data are inadequate to conclusively establish a dose–response relationship or even a cause-and-effect relationship due to limited information on period and intensity of exposure and to confounding factors, such as exposure to silica and tobacco smoke.

Long-term exposure to kaolin causes the development of radiologically diagnosed pneumoconiosis in an exposure-related fashion. Clear-cut deterioration of respiratory function and related symptoms have been reported only in cases with prominent radiological findings. The composition of the clay — i.e., quantity and quality of minerals other than kaolinite — is an important determinant of the effects.

Bentonite, kaolin, and other clays often contain quartz, and exposure to quartz is causally related to silicosis and lung cancer. Statistically significant increases in the incidence of or mortality from chronic bronchitis and pulmonary emphysema have been reported after exposure to quartz.

Bentonite and kaolin have low toxicity to aquatic species, a large number of which have been tested.

From the limited data available from studies on bentonite-exposed persons, retained montmorillonite appears to effect only mild nonspecific tissue changes, which are similar to those that have been described in the spectrum of changes of the "small airways mineral dust disease" (nodular peribronchiolar dust accumulations containing refractile material [montmorillonite] in association with limited interstitial fibrosis). In some of the studies, radiological abnormalities have also been reported.

There exist no reported cases of marked diffuse/nodular pulmonary tissue fibrotic reaction to montmorillonite in the absence of free silica. No quantitative estimates of the potency of bentonite to cause adverse pulmonary effects can be derived.

Long-term exposure to kaolin may lead to a relatively benign pneumoconiosis, known as kaolinosis. Deterioration of lung function has been observed only in cases with prominent radiological alterations. Based on data from china clay workers in the United Kingdom, it can be very roughly estimated that kaolin is at least an order of magnitude less potent than quartz.

Bentonite, kaolin, and other clays often contain quartz, which is known to cause silicosis and lung cancer.

No report on local or systemic adverse effects has been identified from the extensive use of bentonite or kaolin in cosmetics.

The biological effects of clay minerals are influenced by their mineral composition and particle size. The decreasing rank order of the potencies of quartz, kaolinite, and montmorillonite to produce lung damage is consistent with their known relative active surface areas and surface chemistry.

Bentonite and kaolin have low toxicity towards aquatic organisms.

Clay is a widely distributed, abundant mineral resource of major industrial importance for an enormous variety of uses (Ampian, 1985). In both value and amount of annual production, it is one of the leading minerals worldwide. In common with many geological terms, the term "clay" is ambiguous and has multiple meanings: a group of fine-grained minerals — i.e., the clay minerals; a particle size (smaller than silt); and a type of rock — i.e., a sedimentary deposit of fine-grained material usually composed largely of clay minerals (Patterson & Murray, 1983; Bates & Jackson, 1987). In the latter definition, clay also includes fine-grained deposits of non-aluminosilicates such as shale and some argillaceous soils.

This Environmental Health Criteria (EHC) monograph deals with the health hazards associated with bentonite, kaolin, and common clay, which are commercially important clay products, as well as the related phyllosilicate minerals montmorillonite, kaolinite, and illite. Fibrous clay minerals, such as sepiolite, attapulgite, and zeolites, are not discussed. For a recent assessment of the health effects of zeolites, see IARC (1997a). As bentonite, kaolin, and common clay may contain varying amounts of silica, a short summary is presented of recent assessments of quartz (IARC, 1997b; IPCS, 2000).

Recently, there has been an increased interest in the toxicity of airborne fine (0.1–2.5 µm) and ultrafine (<0.1 µm) particles. Epidemiological studies have indicated an increase in morbidity and mortality associated with an increase in airborne particulate matter, particularly in the ultrafine size range (Pekkanen et al., 1997; Stölzel et al., 2003). There is little information on how much of total airborne particulate matter is clay dust and what fraction of airborne clay dusts is in the fine or ultrafine mode.

2.2.1 Bentonite

The term "bentonite" is ambiguous. As defined by geologists, it is a rock formed of highly colloidal and plastic clays composed mainly of montmorillonite, a clay mineral of the smectite group (Fig. 1), and is produced by in situ devitrification of volcanic ash (Parker, 1988). The transformation of ash to bentonite apparently takes place only in water (certainly seawater, probably alkaline lakes, and possibly other fresh water) during or after deposition (Grim, 1968; Patterson & Murray, 1983). Bentonite was named after Fort Benton (Wyoming, USA), the locality where it was first found. In addition to montmorillonite, bentonite may also contain feldspar, biotite, kaolinite, illite, cristobalite, pyroxene, zircon, and crystalline quartz (Parkes, 1982).

By extension, the term bentonite is applied commercially to any plastic, colloidal, and swelling clay regardless of its geological origin. Such clays are ordinarily composed largely of minerals of the montmorillonite group.

Bentonite is a rock or a clay base industrial material. It is therefore a mixture of minerals. No "molecular" formula can be given.

The Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) registry number for bentonite is 1302-78-9.

Synonyms and trade names used to designate bentonite include Albagel Premium USP 4444, Bentonite magma, Bentonite 2073, Bentopharm, CI 77004, E558, HI-Gel, HI-Jel, Imvite I.G.B.A., Magbond, mineral sopa, Montmorillonite, Panther creek bentonite, soap clay, Southern bentonite, taylorite, Tixoton, Veegum HS, Volclay, Volclay Bentonite BC, and Wilkinite (CIREP, 2003; RTECS, 2003a).

The term "montmorillonite" is also ambiguous and is used both for a group of related clay minerals and for a specific member of that group (Bates & Jackson, 1987). For the former use, smectite is more appropriate (a group of clay minerals that includes montmorillonite, saponite, sauconite, beidellite, nontronite, etc.) (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Classification of silicates (Bailey, 1980b; Rieder et al., 1998). Minerals that can be frequently found in bentonite or kaolin are in bold; the main components are in large typeface. Illite is a component of common soil and sediments and is classified as a mica.

The basic crystal structure of smectites is an octahedral alumina sheet between two tetrahedral silica sheets. Atoms in these sheets common to both layers are oxygens. These three-layer units are stacked one above another with oxygens in neighbouring layers adjacent to each other. This produces a weak bond, allowing water and other polar molecules to enter between layers and induce an expansion of the mineral structure. In the tetrahedral coordination, silicon may be substituted by aluminium and possibly phosphorus; in the octahedral coordination, aluminium may be substituted by magnesium, iron, lithium, chromium, zinc, or nickel. Differences in the substitutions within the lattice in terms of position and elemental composition give rise to the various montmorillonite clay minerals: montmorillonite, nontronite, saponite, hectorite, sauconite, beidellite, volkhonskoite, pimelite, and griffithite.

The molecular formula for montmorillonite is usually given as (M⁺_x·nH₂O) (Al_2–yMg_x)Si₄O₁₀(OH)₂, where M⁺ = Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, or Ca²⁺ (Brindley & Brown, 1980). Ideally, x = 0.33. The CAS registry number for montmorillonite is 1318-93-0.

Fuller’s earth is loosely defined by its properties and commercial use and not by its mineralogy and molecular structure (Grim, 1968; Patterson & Murray, 1983; Ampian, 1985; Bates & Jackson, 1987; Hosterman & Patterson, 1992). The term is derived from the initial usage of certain clays in bleaching, degreasing, and fulling (shrinking) woollen fabrics. Grim (1968) defines Fuller’s earth as "any natural earthy material which will decolorize mineral or vegetable oils to a sufficient extent to be of economic importance." The term encompasses not only some bentonites but also some kaolinites and some silts with minimal clay content. In the USA, the term Fuller’s earth is used to mean palygorskite, a fibrous magnesium–aluminium silicate mineral close to sepiolite (IARC, 1997c). Data on production and other aspects of Fuller’s earth often do not distinguish between bentonite and non-bentonite types.

2.2.2 Kaolin

The name "kaolin" is derived from the word Kau-Ling, or high ridge, the name given to a hill near Jau-chau Fu, China, where kaolin was first mined (Sepulveda et al., 1983). Kaolin, commonly referred to as china clay, is a clay that contains 10–95% of the mineral kaolinite and usually consists mainly of kaolinite (85–95%). In addition to kaolinite, kaolin usually contains quartz and mica and also, less frequently, feldspar, illite, montmorillonite, ilmenite, anastase, haematite, bauxite, zircon, rutile, kyanite, silliminate, graphite, attapulgite, and halloysite. Some clays used for purposes similar to those for which kaolin is used may contain substantial amounts of quartz: "kaolin-like" clays used in South African pottery contained 23–58% quartz and, as the other major constituent, 20–36% kaolinite (Rees et al., 1992).

The CAS registry number for kaolin is 1332-58-7.

Synonyms and trade names for kaolin include Altowhites, Argilla, Bentone, Bolbus alba, China clay, CI 77004, Emathlite, Fitrol, Fitrol desiccite 25, Glomax, Hydrite, Kaopaous, Kaophills-2, Kolite, Lang-ford, McNamee, Parclay, Pigment white 19, Porcelain clay, Snow tex, terra alba, and white bole (CIREP, 2003; RTECS, 2003b).

The structure of kaolinite is a tetrahedral silica sheet alternating with an octahedral alumina sheet. These sheets are arranged so that the tips of the silica tetrahedrons and the adjacent layers of the octahedral sheet form a common layer (Grim, 1968). In the layer common to the octahedral and tetrahedral groups, two-thirds of the oxygen atoms are shared by the silicon and aluminium, and then they become O instead of OH. The charges within the structural unit are balanced. Analyses of many samples of kaolinite minerals have shown that there is very little substitution in the lattice (Grim, 1968). The molecular formula that is common for the kaolinite group (kaolinite, nacrite, dickite) is Al₂Si₂O₅(OH)₄ (Grim, 1968).

The CAS registry number for kaolinite is 1318-74-7.

2.2.3 Other clays

In addition to bentonite (and Fuller’s earth) and kaolin, the main types of commercial clays are ball clay, common clay and shale, and fire clay. Ball clay consists primarily of kaolinite, with minor amounts of illite, chlorite, smectite minerals, quartz, and organic materials. Common clay and shale contain illite and chlorite as major components, while fire clay comprises mainly kaolinite, halloysite, and/or diaspore (Virta, 2002).

Illite is a name for a group of mica-like clay minerals proposed by R.E. Grim, R.H. Bray, and W.F. Bradley in 1937 to honour the US state of Illinois, a source of illite and a state that had supported research on clay (Grim, 1968; Bates & Jackson, 1987). Illite clay minerals show substantially no expanding lattice characteristics and are characterized by intense 1.0-nm 001 and 0.33-nm 003 peaks that are not modified by glycerol or ethylene glycol solvation, potassium saturation, or heating to 550 °C (Fanning et al., 1989). Grim (1968) stated that illite includes both trioctahedral (biotite) and dioctahedral (muscovite) types of crystallization. The US Geological Survey report entitled A Laboratory Manual for X-Ray Powder Diffraction, however, limits illite to minerals with a dioctahedral, muscovite structure (USGS, 2001). Velde (1995) separated mica-like minerals such as illite from true micas on the basis that the former have almost exclusively potassium as the interlayer ion and a charge imbalance always slightly less than 1.0 per unit cell. (This value for the charge imbalance is much below the 1.3–1.5 given by Grim [1968].) In addition, true micas usually have a greater grain size than the mica-like clay minerals (i.e., >2 µm) and commonly are found in rocks that have been subjected to elevated temperatures.

The Association Internationale Pour l’Étude des Argiles Nomenclature Committee (Rieder et al., 1998) defines illite as a serial name for dioctahedral interlayer-deficient mica with composition K_0.65(Al₂)(Si_3.35Al_0.65)O₁₀(OH)₂. The aluminium in octahedral positions can be partially substituted by Mg²⁺, Fe²⁺, and Fe³⁺.

The CAS registry number of illite is 1217-36-03 (Grim, 1968). Synonyms of illite include hydromica, illidromica, and glimmerton.

The chemical composition of illite deposits from Malaysia is summarized in Fan & Aw (1989) and from the USA and Germany in Grim (1968) and Gaudette et al. (1966). The water content of Malaysian illite ranged from 19% to 26%, and that of the illites described by Grim (1968), from 6% to 12%. The density of illite is 2.6–2.9 g/cm³ (Grim, 1968; Tamás, 1982). Gaudette et al. (1966) mentioned that illites from Illinois, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin, USA, were light green or light to dark grey clays. Illite mined in Füzérradvány, Hungary, is described as greasy, clay-like, and of high plasticity (Tamás, 1982). Its colour is determined by its iron content and may be white, yellow, lilac, or reddish brown.

2.3.1 Bentonite

Bentonite feels greasy and soap-like to the touch (Bates & Jackson, 1987). Freshly exposed bentonite is white to pale green or blue and, with exposure, darkens in time to yellow, red, or brown (Parker, 1988). The special properties of bentonite are an ability to form thixotrophic gels with water, an ability to absorb large quantities of water with an accompanying increase in volume of as much as 12–15 times its dry bulk, and a high cation exchange capacity.

Substitutions of silicon by cations produce an excess of negative charges in the lattice, which is balanced by cations (Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺) in the interlayer space. These cations are exchangeable due to their loose binding and, together with broken bonds (approximately 20% of exchange capacity), give montmorillonite a rather high (about 100 meq/100 g) cation exchange capacity, which is little affected by particle size. This cation exchange capacity allows the mineral to bind not only inorganic cations such as caesium but also organic cations such as the herbicides diquat, paraquat (Weber et al., 1965), and s-triazines (Weber, 1970), and even bio-organic particles such as rheoviruses (Lipson & Stotzky, 1983) and proteins (Potter & Stollerman, 1961), which appear to act as cations. Variation in exchangeable cations affects the maximum amount of water uptake and swelling. These are greatest with sodium and least with potassium and magnesium.

Interstitial water held in the clay mineral lattice is an additional major factor controlling the plastic, bonding, compaction, suspension, and other properties of montmorillonite-group clay minerals. Within each crystal, the water layer appears to be an integral number of molecules in thickness. Physical characteristics of bentonite are affected by whether the montmorillonite composing it has water layers of uniform thickness or whether it is a mixture of hydrates with water layers of more than one thickness. Loss of absorbed water from between the silicate sheets takes place at relatively low temperatures (100–200 °C). Loss of structural water (i.e., the hydroxyls) begins at 450–500 °C and is complete at 600–750 °C. Further heating to 800–900 °C disintegrates the crystal lattice and produces a variety of phases, such as mullite, cristobalite, and cordierite, depending on initial composition and structure. The ability of montmorillonite to rapidly take up water and expand is lost after heating to a critical temperature, which ranges from 105 to 390 °C, depending on the composition of the exchangeable cations. The ability to take up water affects the utilization and commercial value of bentonite (Grim, 1968; Parker, 1988).

Montmorillonite clay minerals occur as minute particles, which, under electron microscopy, appear as aggregates of irregular or hexagonal flakes or, less commonly, of thin laths (Grim, 1968). Differences in substitution affect and in some cases control morphology.

2.3.2 Kaolin

Kaolinite, the main constituent of kaolin, is formed by rock weathering. It is white, greyish-white, or slightly coloured. It is made up of tiny, thin, pseudohexagonal, flexible sheets of triclinic crystal with a diameter of 0.2–12 µm. It has a density of 2.1–2.6 g/cm³. The cation exchange capacity of kaolinite is considerably less than that of montmorillonite, in the order of 2–10 meq/100 g, depending on the particle size, but the rate of the exchange reaction is rapid, almost instantaneous (Grim, 1968). Kaolinite adsorbs small molecular substances such as lecithin, quinoline, paraquat, and diquat, but also proteins, polyacrylonitrile, bacteria, and viruses (McLaren et al., 1958; Mortensen, 1961; Weber et al., 1965; Steel & Anderson, 1972; Wallace et al., 1975; Adamis & Timár, 1980; Schiffenbauer & Stotzky, 1982; Lipson & Stotzky, 1983). The adsorbed material can be easily removed from the particles because adsorption is limited to the surface of the particles (planes, edges), unlike the case with montmorillonite, where the adsorbed molecules are also bound between the layers (Weber et al., 1965).

Upon heating, kaolinite starts to lose water at approximately 400 °C, and the dehydration approaches completeness at approximately 525 °C (Grim, 1968). The dehydration depends on the particle size and crystallinity.

2.3.3 Other clays

Illite, together with chlorite, is the main component of common clay and shale. It is also an important impurity in limestone, which can affect the properties and thus the value of the stone for construction and other purposes (Carr et al., 1994). Despite the widespread occurrence of illite in nature, large deposits of high purity are quite rare (as discussed in section 3.2.1.3).

Illite usually occurs as very small (0.1–2 µm), poorly defined flakes commonly grouped into irregular aggregates. Lath-shaped and ribbon-shaped illite particles up to 30 µm in length and 0.1–0.3 µm in width have also been described (Srodon & Eberl, 1984), but their existence is controversial. Velde (1985) stated unqualifiedly that these so-called filamentous illites are mixed-layer structures. Srodon & Eberl (1984), however, drawing on the same references plus their own data, concluded that these filaments in some cases are mixed-layer structures but in other cases are composed only of illite, and they further supported their view with scanning electron microscopic photographs of lath-shaped crystals of what they identified as illite.

The special properties of illite are derived from its molecular structure. The balancing cation is mainly or entirely potassium, and charge deficiency from substitutions is at least twice that of smectites (i.e., 1.3–1.5 per unit cell layer) and is mainly in the silica sheet and close to the surface of the unit layer rather than in the octahedral layer as in smectites (Grim, 1968). These differences from smectites produce a structure in which interlayer balancing cations are not easily exchanged and the unit layers are relatively fixed in position and do not permit polar ions such as water to readily enter between them and produce expansion.

Illite reacts with both inorganic and organic ions and has a cation exchange capacity of 10–40 meq/100 g, a value intermediate between those of montmorillonite and kaolinite (Grim, 1968). Ion exchange capacity is reduced by heating. The potassium in the interlayer space is "fixed" to a considerable degree, making it not readily available to plants, a matter of importance in soil science and agriculture. A portion of the interlayer potassium, however, can be slowly leached, leading to the degradation of the illite. Such degradation, however, can be reversed by the addition of potassium. Wilken & Wirth (1986) stated that fithian illite from Illinois, USA, adsorbed hexachlorobenzene suspended in distilled water with a sorption partition coefficient of 2200–2600 and that more than half of this adsorbed hexachlorobenzene could be desorbed by further contact with distilled water. However, the fithian illite used in the experiment had a composition of 30% quartz, 19% feldspar, 11% kaolinite, 1% organic carbon, and 40% illite, making it impossible to know how much of the measured adsorption could be ascribed to illite.

The dehydration and other changes in illite with heating have been studied by several investigators, with inconsistent results (Grim, 1968). Some of the inconsistency in findings may result from differences in the period at which samples were held at a given temperature, since dehydration is a function of both time and temperature (Roy, 1949). It is also probable that small differences in particle size, crystal structure, and molecular composition among samples of what were ostensibly the same mineral contributed to the inconsistencies. Dehydration takes place either smoothly or in steps between about 100 and 800 or 850 °C for both biotite and muscovite illites. Loss of structure by the various illite minerals occurs between about 850 and 1000 °C.

2.3.4 Surface chemistry

Chemical properties of the surfaces of silicates and, in particular, clay minerals are strongly dependent on their mineral structure. The basic unit of montmorillonite crystals is an extended layer composed of an octahedral alumina sheet (O) between two tetrahedral silica sheets (T), forming a TOT unit (Bailey, 1980a). The stacks of TOT layers produce the montmorillonite crystals. Isomorphic substitutions in the octahedral sheet (few tetrahedral substitutions are observed in montmorillonite) create an excess of negative structural charge that is delocalized in the lattice. Cations located between two consecutive layers contribute to compensate the structural charge and to keep the layers bound. These cations can easily be exchanged, since they are retained by electrostatic attractions. The surface area associated with the basal surfaces of the extended TOT units is known as the interlayer surface when it corresponds to consecutive layers or as the external surface when it corresponds to the external basal surfaces of a crystal. The external and interlayer surface area represents approximately 95% of the total surface area of montmorillonite. On the other hand, the periodic structure of the montmorillonite crystals is interrupted at the edges, where the broken bonds compensate their charge by the specific adsorption of protons and water molecules (Schindler & Stumm, 1987; Stumm & Wollast, 1990; Stumm, 1997). This interruption of the periodic structure confers to the edge surface an amphoteric character — i.e.,a pH-dependent surface charge and the capacity to react specifically with cations, anions, and molecules (organic and inorganic), forming chemical bonds.

The kaolinite layers are formed only by a tetrahedral sheet of silica and an octahedral sheet of alumina, which contain almost no isomorphic substitutions (Bailey, 1980a). Hydroxyls of the octahedral sheet bind to oxygens of the tetrahedral sheet of the consecutive layer in the kaolinite crystal. The structural charge of the crystal is nonexistent, and no molecules or cations are present in the interlayer space. The surface area of the kaolinite is thus reduced to external surface area and to edge surface area. The edge surface area is similar in nature and properties to the one observed in montmorillonite and represents approximately 20% of the total surface area. However, two types of external surfaces are defined for kaolinite: one associated with the outermost tetrahedral sheet and the other associated with the outermost octahedral sheet. The reactivity of the external octahedral sheet is due to the hydroxyl groups present, which i) can produce a pH-dependent surface charge by protonation and deprotonation reactions and ii) can react specifically with other molecules (Huertas et al., 1998).

Quartz is the most relevant accessory mineral in bentonite and kaolin. Its structure is a tridimensional framework of silicate tetrahedra arranged sharing corners. In contrast with montmorillonite and kaolinite, quartz surface area is defined only as an external surface. Broken bonds, which compensate charge by adsorption of protons or water molecules, are found in all the crystal phases.

The "active" surface area is close to 100% in quartz, 20% in kaolinite, and 5% in montmorillonite. This may be related to the observed toxicity of these materials (see chapter 6).

2.3.5 Trace elements in clays

Knowledge of mechanisms controlling the distribution of trace elements in clays is scarce and contradictory, in spite of the many investigations carried out on the geochemical behaviour of some trace elements used in geological reconstruction as "geochemical indicators" (Fiore et al., 2003). It is well known that clays contain trace elements that literature indicate as toxic and/or micronutrients (i.e., antimony, arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, tellurium, thallium, zinc) whose concentrations are widely variable, depending on their geological history. These trace elements may be in the clay (or accessory) mineral structure as well as adsorbed on clay particles, which play the most important role in controlling their distribution and abundance. Chemical elements in crystalline positions are usually "locked," whereas those adsorbed may be mobilized and transferred to leaching solutions.

For information on the leaching and bioavailability of clay components, see chapter 5.

2.4.1 Quantitative measurement of dust

Inhaled dust appears to be the major mode of human exposure to aluminosilicates, and a general review of methodology for dust sampling and analysis is presented in Degueldre (1983). Quantitative methods for the measurement of total dust and respirable dust are described in the NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods (Eller & Cassinelli, 1994), in Part 40 of the US government’s Code of Federal Regulations (US EPA, 1996a), and in Mine Safety and Health Administration Handbook No. PH90-IV-4 (US Department of Labor, 1990). All of these methods are gravimetric and measure the weight of dust collected on a filter from a known volume of air.

Although the basic principles behind these methods are simple, accurate and precise results demand sensitive equipment and attention to detail. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) method for total dust requires an appropriate sampler with a polyvinyl chloride or equivalent filter with a pore size of 2–5 µm, a pump with a well characterized, uniform rate of air flow of 1.5–2.0 litres/min, and a microbalance capable of weighing to 0.01 mg, as well as a vacuum desiccator, a static neutralizer, and a chamber with constant temperature and humidity for storing the filters. Guidance for optimizing performance of the 10-mm cyclone sampler is provided by Bartley & Breuer (1982). Briant & Moss (1984) recommended use of a conducting, graphite-filled nylon cyclone to avoid developing an electrostatic charge on the cyclone, which may reduce the measured value for respirable dust below the actual value. Significant errors can also be introduced by air leakage in the filter assembly, the accumulation of static electrical charge on the filter, and many other factors.

Another quantitative measurement of dusts is the determination of particle number. The toxicity of particles has been shown to be related more to surface than to mass. The smaller the particle, the larger the surface area to mass ratio.

2.4.2 Identification of phyllosilicates

There is no single or simple procedure for the positive identification of montmorillonite-group or other aluminosilicates or for their quantification in dust and other samples. The application of several methods may be necessary for even approximate identification and rough quantification. These methods include X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, differential thermal analysis, and infrared spectroscopy. In the past, chemical methods based on differences in resistance of various clay minerals to chemical attack, the so-called "rational methods of analysis," were used.

X-ray powder diffraction analysis is the basic technique for clay mineral analysis (Moore & Reynolds, 1989). After preliminary removal of sand, clay is separated from silt by centrifugation or sedimentation from suspensions. X-ray diffraction patterns are obtained for air-dried samples and, in the case of oriented aggregates, also for samples treated with ethylene glycol vapour or heated to 350 and 550 °C. Diffraction patterns are compared with standards (Grim, 1968; Thorez, 1975; Brindley & Brown, 1980; JCPDS, 1981) for identification of minerals. Comparisons are complicated, however, by variations in diffraction patterns arising from differences in amounts of absorbed water, by the presence of imperfections in the crystal lattice structure of the minerals, and by mixed-layer structures formed by interstratification of minerals within a single particle (Grim, 1968). Approximate quantification of mineral abundance in samples containing several minerals is possible, although subject to a variety of complications and errors (Starkey et al., 1984; Salt, 1985).

Transmission electron microscopy is valuable for identifying aluminosilicates with a distinctive morphology (Starkey et al., 1984). Particles dispersed on a plastic film can be observed directly by transmission microscopy or shadowed to increase contrast by evaporating a heavy metal onto specimens prior to examination. Grim (1968) and Starkey et al. (1984) provide an entry into the extensive literature on this subject. Many aluminosilicates (e.g., montmorillonite, which occurs as broad mosaic sheets decomposing into minute flakes) lack a distinctive morphology and cannot be identified by this technique.

Energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDXA) — also referred to as energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis, X-ray microanalysis, electron microscopic microanalysis, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry — and electron diffraction may permit the rapid identification of individual clay mineral particles (Sahle et al., 1990; Lee, 1993) and have been applied particularly to the identification of inhaled particles sampled via bronchoalveolar lavage or from lung specimens (Johnson et al., 1986; Costabel et al., 1990; Monsó et al., 1991, 1997; Chariot et al., 1992; Bernstein et al., 1994; Dufresne et al., 1994). EDXA requires a scanning or transmission electron microscope equipped with an energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer and appropriate mathematical tools for analysing the resulting spectra. EDXA identifies and quantifies elements above atomic number 8. Since the basic classification of clay minerals is based on structural formula and the atomic composition is similar for many different clay minerals, EDXA cannot provide secure identification except by comparison with standards previously identified by other means. Application of EDXA without appropriate standards is likely to generate significant errors (Newbury et al., 1995). In practice, EDXA is ordinarily combined with conventional transmission electron microscopy to first visualize a particle. Probe size is then adjusted downward so that only the selected particle is analysed. The best results are obtained by operating the microanalysis in scanning transmission mode.

Differential thermal analysis (DTA) is based on temperature differences between the sample and a thermally inert material during heating or cooling and is most useful for mineral identification in samples composed mainly or entirely of a single clay mineral (Grim & Rowland, 1944; Mackenzie, 1970; Smykatz-Kloss, 1974). The sample and a control, a thermally inert material (e.g., aluminium oxide), are heated in separate crucibles in a well regulated furnace. During heating, the change in temperature of the clay sample will be modified by endothermic and exothermic reactions. Identification is done by comparing the temperature difference trace with standard curves (Grim & Rowland, 1944; Mackenzie, 1970; Smykatz-Kloss, 1974). DTA is not without difficulties, since results are influenced by furnace atmosphere, heat conductance of sample and crucible, type of thermocouple, rate of heating, grain size of sample, and many other factors (Smykatz-Kloss, 1974). Identification of component minerals in mixtures and quantification of mixtures by use of DTA are difficult and often may be impossible due to overlapping DTA curves (Grim, 1947; Smykatz-Kloss, 1974).

Many aluminosilicates can be identified by distinctive infrared absorption spectra. Absorption is normally measured over a range of frequencies (Grim, 1968), and the resulting spectrum compared with published standards (Van der Marel & Beutelspacher, 1976; Ferraro, 1982). Satisfactory measurements require appropriate mounting of specimens and minimizing of scattering and reflection. The latter is accomplished by using particles smaller than the minimum wavelength (Grim, 1968).

Montmorillonite can be distinguished from beidellite, nontronite, and saponite by its irreversible collapse of the structure after Li saturation and heat treatment. Li migration to the octahedral charge converts montmorillonite to a non-expandable structure upon treatment with water, glycol, or ethylene glycol. The procedure is known as the Greene-Kelly test (Greene-Kelly, 1955). Other smectites, such as beidellite and saponite, should expand to give the characteristic 1.77-nm reflection upon solvation with ethylene glycol.

3.1.1 Bentonite

Bentonite derived from ash falls tends to be in beds of uniform thickness (from a few millimetres to 15 m) and extensive over large areas (Parker, 1988). Bentonite from ash falls and other sources occurs worldwide in strata spanning a broad range of ages, but is most abundant in Cretaceous or younger rocks.

Bentonite is a widely distributed material. Accordingly, its major component, montmorillonite, occurs abundantly as dust at and near surface deposits of bentonite and is dispersed widely by air and moving water. Montmorillonite is thus ubiquitous in low concentrations worldwide in soil, in the sediment load of natural waters, and in airborne dust. Biodegradation appears minimal, if it occurs at all, and there is no evidence of or reason to suspect accumulation in the food-chain. Abiotic degradation of bentonite into other minerals takes place only on a geological time scale (Parker, 1988).

3.1.2 Kaolin

Kaolin and the clay mineral kaolinite are natural components of the soil and occur widely in ambient air as floating dust. Kaolinite is formed mainly by decomposition of feldspars (potassium feldspars), granite, and aluminium silicates. It is also not uncommon to find kaolin deposited together with other minerals (illite, bentonite). The process of kaolin formation is called kaolinization (Grim, 1968).

Kaolinite formation occurs in three ways:

• crumbling and transformation of rocks due to the effects of climatic factors (Zettlitz type);
• transformation of rocks due to hydrothermal effects (Cornwall type); and
• formation by climatic and hydrothermal effects (mixed type).

The type of clay mineral formed during the decay of rocks containing aluminium silicates is influenced by the climate, the aluminium/silicon ratio, and pH. Conditions conducive for kaolinite formation are strong dissolution of Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, and K⁺ ions and the presence of H⁺ ions (pH 4–5) (Parker, 1988).

Kaolinite quarries can be categorized according to the geohistorical age of the parent rock:

• Precambrian (Ukraine, Spain, Czech and Slovak republics)
• Postcambrian (Cornwall, England, and Ural Mountains, Russia)
• Palaeovolcanite (Meissen, Germany)
• Neovolcanite (Tokaj Mountain, Hungary).

Kaolinite can also be categorized according to whether it remained at the place of formation or was transported (Parkes, 1982; Kuzvart, 1984):

• primary: lateritic types formed mainly under tropical climatic conditions (South America, Africa, Australia); and
• secondary: transported by different forces, water, wind (Georgia, USA).

Owing to the different ways in which kaolin can form, several kinds of minerals may occur in natural kaolins. For example, the kaolin of Cornwall, England, contains 10–40% kaolinite; the rest is made of quartz, mica, and feldspar. The kaolin of Georgia, USA, contains 85– 95% kaolinite, as well as quartz, muscovite, and feldspar (Patterson & Murray, 1975).

3.1.3 Other clays

Illite is widely distributed in nature, abundant, and often the dominant clay mineral in soil, terrestrial deposits, sedimentary rocks, freshwater sediments, and most deep-sea clays (Grim, 1968). It is also an important impurity in limestone, affecting the properties and thus the value of the stone for construction and other purposes (Carr et al., 1994). Despite the widespread occurrence of illite in nature, large deposits of high purity are quite rare.

Illite, together with smectites, is formed by weathering of acid igneous rock containing considerable quantities of potassium and magnesium under conditions that permit the potash and magnesia to remain in the weathering environment after breakdown of the parent material (Grim, 1968). Deer et al. (1975) and Srodon & Eberl (1984) identified many potential sources of illite, including weathering of silicates (primarily feldspar), alteration of other clay minerals, and degradation of muscovite. Righi & Meunier (1995) concluded that illite can also be degraded by weathering into illite–montmorillonite (smectite) mixed-layer minerals.

3.2.1 Production levels and sources

3.2.1.1 Bentonite

Bentonite (Table 1) and bentonite Fuller’s earth (Table 2) are mined worldwide. The USA is the major producer of bentonite Fuller’s earth (Table 2). Approximately 90% of world bentonite production is concentrated in 13 countries: the USA, Greece, the Commonwealth of Independent States, Turkey, Germany, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, South Africa, and Australia (Table 1). The USA, Greece, and the Commonwealth of Independent States account for roughly 55% of the annual world production of 10 million tonnes. Wyoming produces the bulk of bentonite mined in the USA (Ampian, 1985). In 2002, the bulk of US production was used domestically, and only a small fraction, 11%, was exported worldwide (Virta, 2002). In addition to the mining of natural deposits, small amounts of bentonite, mainly hectorite, are produced synthetically in both Europe and the USA for use as a catalyst.

Table 1. Bentonite production in selected countries^a–d

Table 2. World bentonite Fuller's earth production^a,b

Most bentonite is mined by stripping methods from open pits after removing any overburden, although underground methods are used in a few places, such as the Combe Hay district in the United Kingdom (Patterson & Murray, 1983). Since deposits are often not uniform in composition, bentonite from a single pit may be separated into several stockpiles, which subsequently are blended to obtain the desired composition. Bentonite is usually processed by breaking large pieces into smaller fragments, drying at low to moderate temperatures to remove water and other volatiles without altering the molecular structure of the bentonite, and grinding to the desired size. The desired size is generally 200 mesh (US standard sieve size) or finer, which is equivalent to particle diameters of less than 70 µm. A coarser granular material is also produced for kitty litter applications. Processing may also include beneficiation, which may involve removing sand and other impurities as well as modifying the type of exchangeable ions in the crystal lattice. Some of the calcium bentonite produced in Texas, USA, is, for example, treated with sodium hydroxide to replace calcium with sodium in the montmorillonite and make the resulting product more suitable for use in drilling mud (Hosterman & Patterson, 1992). An organic-clad bentonite is produced for speciality purposes (paint, speciality greases, etc.) by replacing the inorganic exchangeable cations in the montmorillonite with an alkyl ammonium organic cation and is marketed under trade names such as Bentone and Nikkagel.

3.2.1.2 Kaolin

Large quantities of kaolin are mined and traded internationally. Virta (2002) lists 55 countries with a production of more than 1000 tonnes per year. Production figures for each country that produced >0.1% (>43 000 tonnes) of the estimated world production of kaolin in 2002 are given in Table 3. The People’s Republic of China was estimated to produce 1.9, 2, and 2.12 million tonnes in 2000, 2001, and 2002 (Lines, 2003). The estimated annual production capacity of kaolin in China was 3.2–3.4 million tonnes in 2002–2003, out of which washed kaolin was only 700 000 tonnes (Ma & Tang, 2002; Moore, 2003).

Table 3. Kaolin production in selected countries^a,b

Kaolin is usually removed from the mines in large moist lumps, and the initial process of refining involves chiefly a change in the physical state. Two main methods have been used for the refining of the natural clay: the air flotation or dry process, and the wet process. In the dry process, the clay is dried, pulverized, and then carried by currents of hot air into classifying chambers, from which it emerges as a stream of finely powdered kaolin. This process, which generates huge amounts of dust, was generally used prior to 1940 and has now been largely replaced by the wet process. In this process, the crude clay is mixed with water and vigorously agitated, and the individual kaolin particles are thus separated from each other and suspended in water. Water is then removed using different procedures (Edenfield, 1960).

Because of the varying composition of raw kaolin and different uses, raw kaolin generally requires processing (flotation, sedimentation, baking, etc.) to acquire characteristics suited to specific industrial uses.

3.2.1.3 Other clays

Illite is often an important or dominant component of common clay (Murray, 1994). Common clay is produced worldwide and is a major industrial mineral. In the USA, common clay and shale are produced in 41 states. In 2002, this production was 23 million tonnes and had a value of $148 million (Virta, 2002).

Illite occurs in commercially valuable purity and quantity in Malaysia (Bidor area of Perak), the USA (Illinois), the United Kingdom (South Wales), and Hungary (Tokaj Mountain in the north-eastern part of the country) (Grim, 1968; Fan & Aw, 1989). The most valuable ore is pure white and contains minimal iron. The commercial utility and thus the value of illite deposits may be reduced by lack of homogeneity in mineral content. There is no information on the annual production of relatively pure illite worldwide or by country.

3.2.2 Uses

3.2.2.1 Bentonite

Bentonite has many applications to a broad range of industrial and other activities. Usage of domestic production in the USA in 1995, 1999, and 2002 is summarized in Table 4. Major domestic uses, which include binding foundry sand (i.e., in moulds for castings), absorbing grease, oil, and animal wastes, pelletizing taconite iron ore, and improving the properties of many drilling muds, were 79% of the total. Most of the bentonite (79%) exported from the USA was used in foundry sand and drilling mud. Speciality uses of bentonite include serving as an ingredient for ceramics; waterproofing and sealing in civil engineering projects (e.g., blocking seepage loss from landfill sites, nuclear waste repositories, irrigation ditches, treatment ponds, and the like); serving as a filler, stabilizer, or extender in adhesives, paints, cosmetics, medicines, and other products, as a carrier in pesticides and fertilizers, and as a bonding agent in animal feeds; clarifying wine and vegetable oil; and purifying wastewater (Patterson & Murray, 1983; Kuzvart, 1984; Hosterman & Patterson, 1992; Hanchar et al., 2004). Small amounts of bentonite are also used as a catalyst in the refining of petroleum.

Table 4. Usage of bentonite produced in the USA^a

The use of sodium bentonite in hazardous waste containment utilizes a number of its special properties (Jepson, 1984). Its swelling ability makes it an effective soil sealant, since, by swelling within the interstices of the soil with which it is mixed, bentonite plugs the voids in the soil, creating a barrier of very low permeability. Swelling ability is aided by the possibility of a very small average particle size, allowing bentonite to plug even the smallest of voids. The high cation exchange capacity enhances the retention of wastes, especially heavy metals. In addition, a mixture of sodium bentonite and soil forms a tough, flexible mastic that is highly durable and not easily ruptured.

The ability of bentonite to bind cationic metals and certain pesticides has been applied experimentally to detoxifying victims of paraquat poisoning (Meredith & Vale, 1987) and to reducing the transfer of radiocaesium to milk and other animal-derived foods (Giese, 1989; Unsworth et al., 1989). Although effective in reducing the mortality of experimentally poisoned rats, there was no evidence that lavage with bentonite decreased human mortality following accidental ingestion of paraquat. Inclusion of bentonite in the diet of cattle reduced the transfer of radiocaesium into milk, but bentonite proved far less effective than cyanoferrates such as Prussian blue and thus was not the treatment of choice. In addition to these examples, there is an extensive literature documenting the ability of bentonite to adsorb these and other toxics. None of this research, however, appears to have led to major new uses for bentonite.

The chemical composition of bentonite affects its usage (Patterson & Murray, 1983; Kuzvart, 1984; Hosterman & Patterson, 1992). High-swelling bentonite, in which sodium is usually the dominant exchangeable ion, is preferred for drilling muds, pelletizing iron ore, and sealing and waterproofing, whereas low-swelling calcium bentonite is preferred for filtering, clarifying, and absorbing and for serving as a filler, stabilizer, extender, carrier, bonding agent, or catalyst. Both types are used as a foundry sand bond. Sodium bentonites provide good dry strength in moulds, whereas calcium bentonites provide good "green" (condition prior to drying) strength.

Bentonite is used in a large number of different cosmetic products, such as paste masks, skin care and cleansing preparations, eyeliners, foundations, and others. In 1998, bentonite was reported to be used in 78 different cosmetics in the USA, usually at concentrations between 1% and 10%, but reaching 80% in some paste masks (CIREP, 2003). Bentonite has been approved for use as a "Generally regarded as safe" (GRAS) food additive in the USA (US FDA, 2004).

The uses of montmorillonite-type Fuller’s earth overlap those of bentonite (Hosterman & Patterson, 1992) (Table 5). Major uses include serving as an adsorbent for oil, grease, and animal waste and as a carrier for pesticides and fertilizers. Minor uses are filtering, clarifying, and decolorizing and serving as filler in paints, adhesives, and pharmaceuticals.

Table 5. Fuller's earth sold or used by producers in the USA, by use^a

3.2.2.2 Kaolin

In China, east of King-te-Chen city, kaolin was used for making porcelain in the third century BC.

In Europe, kaolin was used for making earthenware in about 5000 BC, but the method of making porcelain was unknown until about 1710. After that time, porcelain production spread first to Europe and then to the whole world (Kuzvart, 1984).

Like bentonite and common clay, kaolin is an important industrial mineral that has an enormous variety of uses. Uses of kaolin mined in the USA for the years 1995, 1999, and 2002 are summarized in Table 6. In all three years, about two-thirds of the total production was used domestically and the remainder exported. Use of kaolin as a coating for paper accounted for almost half of the total domestic consumption and for roughly 80% of the exported kaolin. Widespread use of kaolin-coated papers in the manufacture of cigarettes (Wynder & Hoffman, 1967) may expose smokers to kaolinite particles by inhalation. Other important uses of kaolin were as a filler in the p