IPCS INCHEM Home


    INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME ON CHEMICAL SAFETY

    WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION





    SAFETY EVALUATION OF CERTAIN 
    FOOD ADDITIVES



    WHO FOOD ADDITIVES SERIES: 42





    Prepared by the Fifty-first meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO
    Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)





    World Health Organization, Geneva, 1999
    IPCS - International Programme on Chemical Safety

    EVALUATION OF NATIONAL ASSESSMENTS OF INTAKE OF BENZOATES

    First draft prepared by B.J. Petersen
    Novigen Sciences, Inc., Washington DC, United States

    1.  INTRODUCTION

          The Committee assessed the intake of benzoates, a class of food
    additives generally used as preservatives. Maximum limits for
    benzoates have been proposed in a wide range of foods (solids and
    liquids) in the draft General Standard for Food Additives (GSFA) being
    developed by the Codex Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants
    (CCFAC). A group ADI of 0-5 mg/kg bw, expressed as benzoic acid
    equivalents, has been allocated to benzyl acetate, benzyl alcohol,
    benzaldehyde, and benzoic acid, and its salts (Annex 1, reference
    122).

          Information was provided by nine countries (Australia, China,
    Finland, France, Japan, New Zealand, Spain, United Kingdom, and the
    United States). A combined assessment was provided by Australia and
    New Zealand (Aus-NZ). Five types of assessment were submitted: budget
    method, 'poundage', household economic surveys, model diets, and
    intake assessments based on individual surveys. Most countries
    provided assessments obtained by more than one method. Actual measured
    concentrations of benzoates in foods were used in Japan; in the other
    assessments, benzoate was assumed to be present at the maximum limit
    in the GSFA, national limits, or regional limits. Table 1 summarizes
    these submissions.

        Table 1. Summary of submissions on benzoates

                                                                                       

    Country                 Budget    Poundage  FBS/HES/     Model   Individual dietary
                            method    data      sales data   diets   records
                                                                                       

    Australia-New Zealand   x                                x       x
    China                   x         x                      x       
    Finland                           x
    France                                      x                    x
    Japan                                                    x       
    Spain                   x         x         x                    
    United Kingdom                                           x       x
    United States                     x                      x
                                                                                       

    FBS, food balance sheet; HES, household economic survey; sales, retail stores
    
    2.  SCREENING OF BENZOATES BY THE BUDGET METHOD

          In this method, countries report whether benzoates are used in
    solid foods or beverages or both. The Codex GSFA proposes that
    benzoates be permitted in a wide range of solid foods and beverages
    (Codex Alimentarius Commission, 1997). Table 2 summarizes the data for
    each country, including the patterns of permitted use, the proportion
    of the solid food supply likely to contain benzoates, the maximum
    levels of benzoate permitted, and a comparison of these levels with
    the theoretical maximum level calculated from the budget method for
    that country.

          The theoretical maximum allowable level of use for benzoates in
    solid foods ranged from 200 to 1000 mg/kg, depending on national
    assumptions about the proportion of the food supply that would contain
    benzoates. Except for solid food in China, the theoretical levels are
    lower than the national maximum permitted level of use for the three
    countries that submitted data and are also lower than the GSFA level
    of 2000 mg/kg for a variety of solid foods, including ripened and
    processed cheeses and vegetables in vinegar, oil, or brine, and the
    level of 6000 mg/kg in cooked mollusk, crustaceans, and echinoderms.
    The theoretical maximum allowable level of benzoates in beverages was
    50 mg/kg, while the permitted levels are up to 2100 mg/kg. Detailed
    intake assessments for the use of benzoates in foods are therefore
    required.

    3.  ASSESSMENTS OF INTAKE OF BENZOATES

    3.1  Assessments based on data on poundage (disappearance)

          Estimates of the amounts of benzoates available  per capita from
    data on poundage are given in Table 3 for five countries and compared
    with the ADI of 0-5 mg/kg bw for benzoates. The estimates for intake
    of benzoates are all below the ADI; they range from 0.7 mg/kg bw per
    day in Finland to 1.4 mg/kg bw per day in China. The estimates based
    on poundage data are substantially lower than those based on the
    results of food intake surveys. 

    3.2  Assessments based on data from household economic surveys

          Two countries, France and Spain, submitted data based on
    household surveys or sales data, assuming maximum levels of use in
    each country. The data are summarized in Table 4. These estimates in
    combination with national maximum limits indicate that potential
    intake is lower than the ADI. The estimates for mean  per capita 
    intake range from 0.4 mg/kg bw per day (9% of the ADI) in France
    (based on European Union maximum limits) to 0.6 mg/kg bw per day (12%
    of the ADI) in Spain. It should be noted that both the Spanish and the
    European Union maximum limits are substantially lower than that of the
    GSFA (Ishiwata et al., 1994; EU Directive, 1995; Aus-NZ National Food
    Standards Code, 1997; Codex Alimentarius Commission, 1997; US Code
    Federal Regulations, 1997). 


        Table 2. Estimation of theoretical maximum level for benzoates by the budget method 

                                                                                                                                       

    Country                 % food or beverage supply    National maximum     GSFA maximum                        Theoretical maximum
                            containing benzoates         level (mg/kg)        level (mg/kg)                       level (mg/kg)
                                                                                                                                       

    Australia-New Zealand   50% solid food               2500 solid food      6000 for 2.1 'cooked crustaceae'    200 solid food
                            50% beverages                400 beverages        2100  for 14.1.2.1 'fruit and       50 beverages
                                                                              vegetable juices'

    China                   10% solid food               800 solid food                                           1000 solid food
                            50% beverages                800 beverages                                            50 beverages

    Spain                   5% solid food                1000 solid food                                          400 solid food
                            15% beverages                200 beverages                                            50 beverages
                                                                                                                                       

    GSFA, General Standard for Food Additives

    Table 3. Estimates of intake of benzoates based on poundage data

                                                                                                 

    Country              Date       Assumptions                     Estimated intake     % ADIa
                                                                    (mg/kg bw per day)
                                                                                                 

    China                ?          Population, 1200 million        1.4                  28
                                    25 000 000 kg benzoates

    Finland              1994       Population, 5.1 million         0.7                  15
                                    82 997 kg benzoates used
                                    Four main uses: soft drinks,
                                    juices, jams, juice drinks
                                    39% used in soft drinks

    Spain                ?          Average for population < 3      0.8                  16
                                    years (85% of population)

    United Kingdom       1984-86    Population, 56 million          0.8                  16
    United States        1987       Population, 240 million         0.7                  13
                         1995
                                    Population, 260 million         0.9                  18
                                                                                                 

    a JECFA ADI, 0-5 mg/kg bw

    Table 4. Estimates of intake of benzoates based on household economic surveys and sales data

                                                                                                                                  

    Country  Date  Survey       Assumptions                                       Estimated intake                        % ADIa
                                                                                  (mg/kg bw per day)
                                                                                                                                  

    France   1993  Sales data   Maximum European Union levels of use              Per capita mean, 0.4                    9
                                Adjustment for catering outside the home          Upper 90th percentile consumers, 0.8    17
                                                                                  Upper 95th percentile consumers, 1.1    22 

    Spain    1993  Household    All foods in permitted groups contain benzoates   0.6                                     12
                   survey                                                         
                                                                                                                                  

    a JECFA ADI, 0-5 mg/kg bw
    

          High consumers generally cannot be identified from household
    economic surveys or sales  data. The submission from France included
    estimates of high consumption of benzoate by household divided by the
    number of members; this may result in an underestimate of high
    exposure by individual consumers. The intake of French consumers in
    the upper 90th percentile is 0.8 mg/kg bw per day (17% of the ADI),
    and that of consumers in the upper 95th percentile is 1.1 mg/kg bw per
    day (22% of the ADI).

    3.3  Assessments based on model diets

          Five countries submitted data based on model diets, details of
    which are summarized in Table 5. The results from these models cannot
    be compared directly because different assumptions about dietary
    practices and levels of benzoates were applied in each country. In the
    Japanese assessment, it was assumed that residues would be present at
    the concentrations measured in a market-basket study (Ishiwata et al.,
    1997). The average concentration of benzoates in non-alcoholic
    beverages was 190 mg/kg, which is in contrast to the proposed GSFA
    benzoate level in non-alcoholic beverages of 2000 mg/kg. In other
    countries, intakes were calculated on the basis of national or GSFA
    maximum limits. In each case, the intakes that were calculated on the
    basis of the GSFA maximum limits were substantially higher than those
    based on national limits. For example, a 'high consumer model' was
    used in Aus-NZ to calculate that benzoate intake would be 11 mg/kg bw
    per day (220% of the ADI) under national maximum limits and 44 mg/kg
    bw per day (880% of the ADI) under the GSFA maximum limits. Intakes in
    the United Kingdom were calculated from their 'high consumer model'
    and the maximum limits of the European Union and the GSFA. The
    resulting estimates were 43 mg/kg bw per day for adults with the GSFA
    maximum limits and 32 mg/kg bw per day for adults and 93 mg/kg bw per
    day for children with the European Union maximum limits. All three
    estimates are substantially higher than the ADI of 0-5 mg/kg bw per
    day.

          The United States also submitted calculations based on both the
    GSFA and national maximum limits in their long-term consumer model,
    which includes food frequency estimates obtained for 14 days from a
    panel of consumers combined with portion sizes from national food
    consumption surveys. The results are presented in Table 5 for the
    entire population and for selected age groups. The estimated mean
     per capita consumption assuming GSFA maximum limits is 27 mg/kg bw
    per day (550% of the ADI), and the upper 90th percentile consumption
    is 35 mg/kg bw per day (690% of the ADI). When national limits were
    used, only the intake of upper 90th percentile  per capita and
    'eaters only' exceeded the ADI.


        Table 5. Estimates of intake of benzoates based on model diets 

                                                                                                                                                

    Country Date     Survey               Assumptions                               Type of model          Intake              %ADIa
                                                                                                           (mg/kg bw
                                                                                                           per day)
                                                                                                                                                

    Aus-NZ  1983     National, 24-h       Two models: Aus-NZ /GSFA                  High consumerb
                     recall; adults,      -- maximum levels (Aus-NZ or GSFA)        Aus-NZ permissions     44                  880
                     25-64 years;         -- 95th percentile high consumption       GSFA permissions       11                  220
                     sample size, 6254       level
                                          -- modified GSFA classification system 
                                          -- corrections for premixes/drink bases

    China   1992     National household   One model                                 Average and high
                     survey, 24-h         -- maximum GSFA levels                    consumers
                     recall;                                                        Mean per capita        6                   120
                     30 provinces;                                                  Maximum per capita     45                  280
                     sample size, 91 818                                            Maximum per user       14                  280

    Japan   1994     National nutrition   One model: Japan                          Average consumer
                     intake survey;       -- Analysed food additive concentrations  Mean per capita        0.18                30
                     body weight, 60 kg      (zero values when not detected)
                                          -- Mean benzoates in nonalcoholic
                                             beverages, 0.19 g/kg

    United  1986-87  National; 7-day      Three models: UK adult/child, GSFA        High consumerb
    Kingdom          weighed record;      -- maximum additive levels (EU)           Codex                  43                  860
                     adults,16-64 years   -- unit quantity diet                     UK permissions/adult   32                  640
                                          -- 97.5th percentile high consumption     UK permissions/child   93                  1900
                                             level (UK adult/child models)
                                          -- GSFA classification system

    Table 5. (continued)
                                                                                                                                                

    Country Date     Survey               Assumptions                               Type of model          Intake              %ADIa
                                                                                                           (mg/kg bw
                                                                                                           per day)
                                                                                                                                                

    United  1982-88  14-day menu          Two models/US and GSFA                    Long-term consumer
    States           obtained from MRCA   -- maximum additive levels (US or GSFA)   GSFA permissions/mean  27                  550
                     food frequency data  -- 90th percentile high consumption level GSFA permissions/90th  35                  690
                     (1982-87) combined   -- GSFA classification system (except     percentile
                     with portion sizes      FSDU)
                     from USDA/NFCS       -- corrections for premixes/drink bases
                     (1987-88); > 2 years
                                                                                    US permissions:
                                                                                    Entire population      Per capita mean     2.3     46
                                                                                                           Per capita 90th     6.4     130
                                                                                                           Eaters only mean    2.8     56
                                                                                                           Eaters only 90th    7.3     150
                                                                                    Age subgroups:
                                                                                    Children 3-11 years    Per capita mean     3.4     68
                                                                                                           Per capita 90th     8.5     170
                                                                                                           Eaters only mean    3.9     78
                                                                                                           Eaters only 90th    9.3     190

                                                                                    Females 12-19 years    Per capita mean     2.4     48
                                                                                                           Per capita 90th     6.7     130
                                                                                                           Eaters only mean    3.0     60
                                                                                                           Eaters only 90th    7.1     140

                                                                                    Males 12-19 years      Per capita mean     3.1     62
                                                                                                           Per capita 90th     8.0     160
                                                                                                           Eaters only mean    3.6     72
                                                                                                           Eaters only 90th    8.1     160

    Table 5. (continued)
                                                                                                                                                

    Country Date     Survey               Assumptions                               Type of model          Intake              %ADIa
                                                                                                           (mg/kg bw
                                                                                                           per day)
                                                                                                                                                

                                                                                    Females > 20 years     Per capita mean     2.1     42
                                                                                                           Per capita 90th     6.1     120
                                                                                                           Eaters only mean    2.6     52
                                                                                                           Eaters only 90th    6.8     140
                                                                                    Males > 20 years
                                                                                                           Per capita mean     1.7     34
                                                                                                           Per capita 90th     4.8     96
                                                                                                           Eaters only mean    2.1     42
                                                                                                           Eaters only 90th    5.6     110
                                                                                    Males > 20 years
                                                                                                           Per capita mean     1.7     34
                                                                                                           Per capita 90th     4.8     96
                                                                                                           Eaters only mean    2.1     42
                                                                                                           Eaters only 90th    5.6     110
                                                                                                                                                

    Aus-NZ, Australia-New Zealand; GSFA, General Standard for Food Additives; EU, European Union; MRCA, Market Research Corporation of 
    America; USDA/NFCS, US Department of Agriculture/National Food Composition Survey; FSDU, foods for special dietary uses
    a JECFA ADI, 0-5 mg/kg bw
    b Assumed to consume one food with potentially highest benzoate intake from two major food groups at the 95th percentile (Aus-NZ) or 
      97.5th percentile (United Kingdom) and one food with potentially highest benzoate intake from each of the other maqjor food groups at a mean 
      level for all respondents
    

    3.4  Assessments based on individual dietary records

          Estimates of the intake of benzoates based on individual dietary
    records were submitted by Aus-NZ, France, and the United Kingdom. In
    each case, the estimates of mean and percentile intake were derived
    from estimates of individual intakes adjusted for individual body
    weight (except in the United Kingdom). The assumptions made and the
    estimates are summarized in Table 6. Only in Aus-NZ was an evaluation
    of intake conducted on the basis of the GSFA maximum limits; the
    European Union maximum limits were used in France and the United
    Kingdom.

          Estimates of the intake of benzoates based on individual dietary
    records and national maximum limits are lower than the ADI for both
    mean and high (upper 95th and upper 97.5th percentile) consumers in
    all three countries. The estimated intakes in Aus-NZ based on GSFA
    maximum limits exceeded the ADI for both the mean (20 mg/kg bw per day
    or 420% of the ADI) and the upper 95th percentile consumer (36 mg/kg
    bw per day or 720% of the ADI).


    4.  EVALUATION OF ESTIMATES OF  INTAKE OF BENZOATES

          Screening of benzoates by the budget method at CCFAC indicated
    that they require further assessment for use as additives. Inclusion
    of national proportions of the food and beverage supply that may
    contain benzoates resulted in the same conclusion.

          Estimates of benzoate intake were submitted by eight countries.
     Per capita intake estimates based on poundage data were all below
    the ADI. Such estimates would be expected to be lower than those based
    on household economic surveys, model diets, or individual dietary
    records, which was the case for benzoates.

          Estimates of benzoate intake based on high-consumer model diets
    and individual dietary records were submitted by Aus-NZ and the United
    Kingdom. In both cases, the estimates from the high-consumer models
    were much higher than those based on individual dietary records for
    reported high consumers (95th percentile in Aus-NZ; 97.5th percentile
    in the United Kingdom). For these two countries, the intake estimates
    based on individual dietary records were considered to be the most
    accurate. The estimated intake based on individual records was higher
    for Aus-NZ than the United Kingdom or France. In the calculations from
    Aus-NZ, several GSFA groups were combined, and  the maximum permitted
    levels were assigned to the wider food group; this led to
    overestimated intakes. Furthermore, the Aus-NZ estimates were based on
    24-h recall, which also leads to overestimates because the range of
    reported daily food consumption levels is wider.

          The estimates of mean intake derived from the Chinese and United
    States model diets were lower than those from the Aus-NZ and United
    Kingdom model diets, but were in the same range as the mean intake
    estimates based on individual dietary records for Australia and

    slightly higher than the mean intakes based on individual dietary
    records for France and the United Kingdom. It should be noted that in
    all instances national maximum limits were used, and these are lower
    than the GSFA maximum limits.

          The estimates of mean intake in Japan, based on a model diet,
    were lower than those for other countries. This reflects the use of
    actual measured levels in foods as opposed to the GSFA or national
    maximum limits. 


    5.  CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

    5.1  National estimates of intake of benzoates based on maximum 
         limits specified in the General Standard for Food Additives

          The estimates of national mean and upper 95th percentile consumer
    intake of benzoates based on individual dietary records were lower
    than the ADI for all countries when national maximum limits were used
    but were above the ADI when maximum limits in the GSFA and range of
    use in foods were used. This reflects the fact that maximum limits in
    the GSFA represent the highest maximum limit submitted by any member
    country or international non-governmental organization.

          The available data were insufficient to estimate the number of
    people whose consumption may exceed the ADI or to determine the
    duration of intake above the ADI. 

          Because diets differ among countries, the foods that contribute
    most to benzoate intake would be expected to vary. The GSFA food
    category that contributed most to benzoate intake was carbonated,
    water-based, flavoured drinks (i.e. soft drinks; category 14.1.4.1)
    for Aus-NZ, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In
    Finland, 40% of the benzoates used in food is in soft drinks. Soya
    sauce was the main source in China and the second most important
    source in Japan.

          Typically, estimates of individual dietary intake rely on
    short-term (one- to seven-day surveys) of food consumption, which was
    the case for benzoates. Generally, estimates of long-term consumption
    of single foods are lower than when they are based on short-term
    surveys. In the case of benzoates, however, soft drinks, which
    contribute most to intake, are likely to be consumed regularly.
    Because many consumers are likely to be loyal to a particular brand,
    intake may reflect the levels of benzoates used in specific brands. A
    person who consumes a single bottle (0.5 L) of soft drink per day
    would ingest 8.3 mg/kg bw per day benzoate (170% of the ADI) if it
    contains the maximum limit specified in the GSFA. Thus, the estimated
    intake of benzoate is unlikely to be substantially lower if data on
    longer-term intake are available. This conclusion is based on the
    assumption that the levels remaining in foods at the time of
    consumption are at the maximum limits. If the levels required to meet
    technological needs were below the maximum limits in the GSFA, intake

    would be correspondingly lower. The data submitted by Japan from an
    actual market-basket survey suggest that this may be the case;
    however, further data would be required to determine the levels that
    are required to achieve the technological effect. In addition,
    benzoates are not likely to be used in all foods for which their use
    is authorized. Such information could be used to revise both the
    intake assessment and the maximum limits specified in the GSFA.

          The Committee concluded that, because of the potentially
    significant intake of benzoates at the GSFA maximum limits, factors
    that might contribute to exceedence of the ADI should be further
    evaluated. Further information on levels of benzoates in foods 'as
    consumed' is needed.

    5.2  National estimates of intake of benzoates based on national or 
         European Union maximum limits

          The best estimates of national mean intakes of consumers of
    benzoates were below the ADI of 0-5 mg/kg bw, ranging from 0.18 mg/kg
    bw per day in Japan to 2.3 mg/kg bw per day in the United States.
    These estimates were based on analyses involving either model diets or
    individual dietary records and maximum limits specified by national
    governments or the European Union. The estimated intake by high
    consumers of benzoates, based on food additive levels in national
    standards, exceed the ADI in some cases (7.3 mg/kg bw per day or 150%
    of the ADI  in the United States and 14 mg/kg bw per day or 280% of
    the ADI in China).

    5.3  Recommendations to the Codex Committee on Food Additives and 
         Contaminants

          The proposed draft GSFA lists several uses of benzoates proposed
    by a single country at substantially higher levels than those in the
    same or similar foods in other countries. These include ripened cheese
    (category 1.6.2), processed cheese (category 1.6.4), cheese analogues
    (category 1.6.5), vegetables in vinegar, oil, or brine (category
    4.2.2.3),  Crangon crangon and  Crangon vulgaris (category 9.2.4.2),
    semipreserved fish products (category 9.3), and liquid eggs (category
    10.2.1). The Codex Committee may wish to review the appropriate levels
    for these foods.

          Levels of 350-1000 mg/kg benzoates were proposed by several
    countries and by one non-governmental organization for use in
    carbonated, water-based, flavoured drinks (i.e. soft drinks; category
    14.1.4.1). Since soft drinks make an important contribution to the
    estimated intakes in all countries that submitted data for this
    assessment, with the exception of China, the Codex Committee may wish
    to further consider an appropriate level for this category. Likewise,
    a range of maximum limits was proposed for fruit juice (400-2100
    mg/kg), which the Codex Committee may wish to reconsider.


        Table 6. Estimates of intake of benzoates based on dietary data 
                                                                                                                                            
    Country  Date     Survey                 Model                                             Intake                              %ADIa
                                                                                               (mg/kg bw
                                                                                               per day)
                                                                                                                                            
    Aus-NZ   1983     National survey;       Mean intake of consumers: Aus-NZ maximum limits   1.0                                 20
                      24-h recall;           Mean intake of consumers: GSFA maximum limits     20                                  420
                      adults, 25-64 years;   95th percentile consumers: Aus-NZ maximum limits  3.8                                 80
                      sample, 6254           95th percentile consumers: GSFA maximum limits    36                                  720


    France   1993-94  National survey of     Maximum additive levels (European Union)          
                      adults; 7-day          Intakes adjusted for individual body weight
                                             (corrected) weighed record;                       Mean                        0.4     9
                      adults, 16-64 years;   90th percentile                                   0.9                                 17
                      sample, 3000           95th percentile                                   1.1                                 22

                      5-75 years;            By age group (years)                              5-9                         0.89    18
                      sample, 1116                                                             10-17                       0.5     10
                                                                                               18-24                       0.35    7
                                                                                               25-34                       0.32    6
                                                                                               35-44                       0.35    7
                                                                                               45-54                       0.44    9
                                                                                               55-64                       0.46    9
                                                                                               > 65                        0.46    9

    United   1986-87  National survey of     Mean levels measured in foods or maximum limits   Mean per capita, adults     0.6     12
    Kingdom           adults                 (values not given)                                Mean/consumer, adults       0.6     12
                                                                                               Upper 97.5th percentile     1.8     36
                                                                                               consumer, adults
                                                                                               Mean per capita, children   1.4     28
                                                                                               Mean/consumer, children     1.4     28
                                                                                               Upper 97.5th percentile     3.5     70
                                                                                               consumer, children
                                                                                                                                            

    Aus-NZ, Australia-New Zealand; GSFA, General Standard for Food Additives; EU, European Union
    a JECFA ADI, 0-5 mg/kg bw
    

          The Committee noted that estimates of intake based on national
    maximum limits are below the ADI, whereas estimates based on maximum
    limits and the range of uses in foods specified in the GSFA exceed the
    ADI. The differences arise because the range of foods specified in the
    GSFA is wider and the proposed levels of use in specific food
    categories generally higher than in national standards.


    6.  BIBLIOGRAPHY

    Australia New Zealand Food Authority (1997)  Aus-NZ Food Standards 
     Code , Canberra.

    Baines, J. Data sheets for Australia for TBHQ, BHA, BHT, sulfites, and
    benzoates. Personal communication. Australia-New Zealand Food
    Authority, Canberra, to J. Paakkanen, FAO, 5 January 1998.

    Chen Junshi. Food additive intake from China. Personal communication.
    Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine, Beijing, to J. Paakkanen, FAO,
    16 March 1998.

    Codex Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants (1997)  Report of 
     the Twenty-ninth Session of the Codex Committee on Food Additives 
     and Contaminants, Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the
    United Nations (document ALINORM 97/12A, Appendix V).

    Codex Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants (1998)
    Consideration of the Codex General Standard for Food Additives:
    Proposed draft revised annex A at step 3. Request for comments and
    information. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
    Nations (document CX/FAC 98/9).

    European Commission (1995) European Union Directive 95/2/CE, Brussels.

    Fisher, C.E. Dietary exposure in the United Kingdom to the five
    additives referred to JECFA by CCFAC. Personal communication. Joint
    Food Safety and Standards Group, London, to J. Paakkanen, FAO, 29
    April 1998.

    Ishii, K. Use levels and intake estimates of certain food additives in
    Japan. Personal communication. Japan Food Additives Association,
    Tokyo, to J. Paakkanen, FAO, 10 May 1998.

    Ishiwata, H., Nishijima, M., Fukasawa, Y., Ito, Y. & Yamada, T. (1997)
    Evaluation of preservatives contents in foods and the daily intake
    deduced from the results of the official inspection in Japan in F.Y.
    1994.  J. Food Hyg. Soc. Jpn, 38, 145-154.

    Ministry of Public Health (Spain) (1998) Calculation of certain food
    additives in Spain. Submitted to FAO.

    National Food Administration (Finland) (1998) Estimated intake of
    certain food additives in Finland. Submitted to FAO.

    Rulis, A.M. United States intake data on BHA, BHT, TBHQ, sulfites, and
    benzoates. Personal communication. Food and Drug Administration,
    Washington DC, to J. Paakkanen, FAO, 24 February 1998.

    United States Department of Agriculture (1996) Nationwide food
    consumption survey: 1989-91. Technical Information Service,
    Springfield, VA, United States.

    Verger, P. Estimation of the theoretical maximum intake of certain
    food additives in France. CNERNA, Paris. Submitted to J. Paakkanen,
    FAO, 16 March 1998.
    


    See Also:
       Toxicological Abbreviations
       BENZOATES (JECFA Evaluation)