THAUMATIN
EXPLANATION
Thaumatin is a mixture of intensely sweet proteins (thaumatins)
extracted with water from the arils of the fruit of the West African
perennial plant Thaumatococcus daniellii. The thaumatins have a
normal complement of amino acids, except that histidine is not
present. The molecular weights of the thaumatins are approximately
22,000 and their iso-electric points are in the range of 11.5-12.5.
There are no unusual side-chains, atypical peptide linkages, or
end-groups. Extensive disulfide cross-linking confers to thaumatin
thermal stability, resistance to denaturation, and maintenance of the
tertiary structure of the polypeptide chain. The maintenance of
tertiary structure is critical to thaumatin's technical function.
Cleavage of just one disulfide bridge results in a loss of sweet
taste. (Iyengar et al., 1979).
Thaumatin is purified by selective ultrafiltration, but small
amounts of organic non-protein impurities remain in the commercial
product. These consist principally of the arabinogalactan and
arabinoglucuronoxylan polysaccharides, both of which are normal
constituents of plant gums and mucilages.
Thaumatin functions primarily as a flavour enhancer and as a
high-intensity sweetener. The substance was previously evaluated by
the Committee at its twenty-seventh meeting (Annex 1, reference 62).
No ADI was allocated at that time, although specifications were
prepared.
BIOLOGICAL DATA
Biochemical aspects
Digestion
In vitro studies with purified mammalian digestive enzymes,
using a sequential enzyme system simulating the human digestive tract
and a rapid multienzyme system, resulted in thaumatin being digested
more rapidly than egg albumin (Hsu et al., 1977; Higginbotham,
1978).
A cross-over nitrogen balance study was performed over two 10-day
periods using 2 groups of 10 male rats. During the first period, Group
1 was fed a semi-synthetic diet containing 10% protein from egg
albumin, while a similar diet, but containing 5% egg albumin and 5%
thaumatin, was fed during the second period. Animals in Group 2
received the diets in the reverse order. This procedure was used to
compensate for the lack of histidine in thaumatin, which is an
essential amino acid in the rat. The nitrogen digestibility of both
diets was approximately 90%, but no allowance was made for the loss of
endogenous nitrogen. The author concluded that the digestibility of
thaumatin is at least equal to that of egg albumin. However, the
biological value of thaumatin was lower than that of egg albumin,
which reflects the lack of histidine (Edwards, 1981).
Toxicological Studies
Special studies on mutagenicity
At doses up to 50 mg/plate, thaumatin was not mutagenic in the
Ames test using Salmonella typhimurium strains TA98, TA100, TA1535,
TA1537, or TA1538 or in Escherichia coli strain WP2, either with or
without S-9 mix (Higginbotham, 1980; Higginbotham et al., 1983).
In a dominant-lethal assay, groups of 15 male CD1 mice were
intubated with thaumatin at 200 or 2000 mg/kg/day for 5 days, with
trimethyl phosphate at 100 mg/kg/day for 5 days (positive control), or
with the vehicle, distilled water (negative control). Following
completion of treatment, each male was paired with 3 untreated females
for a maximum of 7 days each week, and this was repeated for 7
consecutive weeks. In the positive control group, fertilization was
unaffected but, during the initial 2 weeks following treatment, a
marked loss of embryos and foetuses occurred and the normality and
rate of development of zygotes were adversely affected. On the other
hand, mating performance and fertility of males, fertilization of ova,
development and survival of zygotes, and pre- and post-implantation
losses were unaffected by treatment with thaumatin, as assessed in
animals sacrificed after 4, 11, or 18 days post coitum. The authors
concluded that, under the conditions of the study, thaumatin did not
induce dominant-lethal mutations in the gametes of male mice
(Tesh et al., 1977a).
Special study on teratogenicity
Thaumatin was administered by gavage to groups of 20 pregnant CD
rats from day 6 to day 15 of gestation, inclusive, at dosages of 0.2,
0.6, or 2.0 g/kg/day. A control group received the vehicle, distilled
water, at the same dosage volume of 10 ml/kg throughout the same
period. On day 21 of gestation, all rats were killed and the number of
corpora lutea in each ovary and the number, position, and condition of
implantations were recorded. Viable foetuses were weighed, sexed, and
examined externally. The thoracic and abdominal cavities of the
remainder were dissected, examined, and then processed for subsequent
skeletal examination. No adverse effects were observed in the pregnant
females nor on litter responses (litter size, foetal weight, or pre-
and post-implantation losses). No visceral or skeletal abnormalities
in the foetuses attributable to the treatment were observed
(Tesh et al., 1977b).
Special studies on allergenicity
Studies on ileum preparations from groups of 5 guinea-pigs that
had been sensitized by i.m. injections of either 50 mg thaumatin or
50 mg egg albumin (together with incomplete adjuvant, which is
preferred for evoking an IgE antibody response), revealed that the
minimum dose of thaumatin capable of eliciting a response was 250 ng.
This is comparable to the minimum dose of egg albumin needed to evoke
an anaphylactic response in the gut of control animals sensitized with
egg albumin. Tests on ileum preparations from guinea-pigs sensitized
with protein and complete (Freund's) adjuvant gave an essentially
similar result, although thaumatin was slightly more sensitizing,
50 ng evoking a response, whereas no effect was elicited with a
similar dose of egg albumin (Stanworth, 1977).
Studies in rats that had been sensitized by s.c. injections of
either 10 µg thaumatin or 10 µg egg albumin (together with Freund's
adjuvant) showed that the levels of anaphylactic antibody in sera,
determined by passive subcutaneous anaphylaxis dilution-titration,
were uniformly lower with thaumatin than with egg albumin (Stanworth,
1977).
In vitro studies on the ability of thaumatin to initiate
histamine release non-immunologically showed that approximately 1 mM
thaumatin was needed to cause a release of 50% of the total available
histamine from a purified rat-mast cell preparation. Synacthen (ACTH
ß1-24polypeptide), the standard histamine-releasing agent used in this
study, released 50% of the total available histamine at a much lower
concentration, 2 µM. This finding was confirmed in vivo in normal
baboons; intradermal injection of thaumatin at a concentration of 1 mM
immediately after an i.v. injection of Evan's blue dye gave only a
weak "blueing" response, whereas Synacthen gave a measurable response
at a concentration of 1 µM (Stanworth, 1977).
Acute toxicity
LD50
Species Route (mg/kg b.w.) Reference
Mouse oral > 20,000 Ben-Dyke, 1975
Rat oral > 20,000 Ben-Dyke &
Joseph, 1976
Short-term studies
Rats
In a preliminary 90-day study, groups of 10 male and 10 female CD
rats were fed thaumatin at dietary levels of 1.0, 4.0, or 8.0% w/w. A
control group received a basal diet supplemented with 8.0% casein w/w
to compensate for the high protein intake.
No deaths occurred in any group. The body-weight gains of male
rats fed 4.0 or 8.0% thaumatin were lower (6% and 9%, respectively)
than those of casein-fed controls. Body-weight gains of female rats
were not affected by treatment. Food consumption of male and female
rats receiving 4.0 or 8.0% thaumatin was 5-11% lower than that of
casein-fed controls. A statistically-significant reduction
(3.2%, p < 0.05) in haemoglobin content in the blood of female rats
fed 8.0% thaumatin was observed, although the values were within the
range normally found for animals of comparable age and weight.
Otherwise, the cellular and chemical composition of blood and urine
were unaffected by treatment.
Tests for hepatic (bromosulfonphthalein retention) and renal
function (concentrating ability) during week 12 in rats fed 8.0%
thaumatin revealed responses that were similar to those obtained in
the casein-control group. Using the Ouchterlony diffusion technique,
no evidence was obtained for the presence of antibodies to thaumatin
in the serum of animals treated with thaumatin for 13 weeks. Apart
from a statistically-significant increase (p < 0.05) in both the
absolute (14%) and relative (17%) liver weights of female rats
receiving 8.0% thaumatin, detailed macroscopic and microscopic
examination of a wide range of tissues revealed no changes which could
be attributed to treatment (Ben-Dyke et al., 1976).
In a second 90-day study, groups of 20 male and 20 female CD rats
received thaumatin at dietary levels of 0, 0.3, 1.0, or 3.0% w/w.
During the treatment period, body weights and food consumption were
recorded weekly. Additionally, the liver, kidneys, heart, lungs,
spleen, and brain from all animals fed 0.3 or 1.0% thaumatin were
examined microscopically.
No visible signs of reaction to treatment were observed. No
animals died as a result of treatment with thaumatin. Body-weight
values for males receiving 3.0% thaumatin were 6% higher during the
study period than those of the control group and females receiving
1.0% thaumatin showed a 6% reduction in body weight from 5 weeks
onward. Food consumption of females receiving 3.0% thaumatin was 7%
lower than that of the controls throughout the treatment period. No
treatment-related effects were observed on water intake or on
ophthalmoscopic examination. Blood and serum analyses showed
significant increases of 8 and 13% in haematocrits at week 12 in male
rats fed 1.0 or 3.0% thaumatin, respectively, and significant
reductions of 10 and 12% in haematocrits in female rats in the 0.3 and
1.0% groups, respectively. A dose-related reduction in triglyceride
levels of up to 60% was observed in females during weeks 4 and 12 of
treatment. Urinalysis was unaffected by treatment.
No treatment-related changes were seen during a detailed
macroscopic examination of all animals at necropsy. An 8% increase in
the kidney weights of treated females was observed; when related to
body weight, the increase was 13%. Thyroid weights were significantly
higher in all male treated groups than in controls and significantly
lower in all female treated-groups than in controls, both in absolute
weight and when related to body weight. The authors did not consider
the changes in thyroid weights to be of toxicological significance,
since the mean absolute thyroid weights of the control males were
abnormally low compared with historical control values; the mean
values for treated males were within the historical control values
cited by the author. On the other hand, the mean absolute thyroid
weights of control females were within the expected range when
compared to historical controls, giving an apparent treatment-related
decrease in absolute and body-weight-related thyroid weights. No
treatment-related changes were seen in the tissue sections taken from
the control and 3.0% groups, which were examined microscopically. A
subsequent microscopic examination of thyroid tissues from all animals
in all groups revealed no treatment-related changes (Hiscox et al.,
1981; Wood, 1984).
Confirmation of the lack of hypo- or hyperthyroid effects was
obtained from an additional study in CD rats. Two groups, 10 males and
10 females in each, were fed 3% thaumatin or 3% egg albumin in the
diet for 4 weeks. Blood samples taken from the animals after the
treatment period were analysed for thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3). No statistically-significant differences in
thyroid hormone levels were observed between animals fed thaumatin and
those fed egg albumin. The authors concluded that thaumatin had no
effect on thyroid function in rats at a dietary level of 3% (Danks
et al., 1984).
Dogs
Groups of 4 male and 4 female beagle dogs were fed thaumatin in
the diet for a minimum of 90 days at levels of 0, 0.3, 1.0, or
3.0% w/w. During the treatment period, body weights were recorded
weekly and food consumption daily. At the end of the treatment period,
a detailed macroscopic examination was performed and weights of the
adrenals, brain, heart, kidneys, liver, lungs, ovaries, pituitary,
prostate, spleen, testes, thyroid, and uterus were recorded.
Microscopic examinations were performed on these and a wide range of
other tissues from all animals.
No deaths occurred and there were no overt signs of reaction to
treatment. Males receiving thaumatin showed slightly increased body
weights relative to controls. Food consumption and water intake were
unaffected by treatment. Ophthalmoscopic examination did not reveal
any changes that could be related to treatment. Haematological
examination of blood samples during weeks 4 and 12 of treatment
revealed slight decreases in haemoglobin concentrations, erythrocyte
counts, and haematocrits in males fed 3.0% thaumatin. However, the
values were within the range determined from historical controls.
Biochemical examination of blood samples did not reveal any treatment-
related effects and urinalysis was unaffected by treatment.
Macroscopic pathology at termination did not reveal any treatment-
related changes. An increase in absolute liver weight (20%) was
observed in males fed 3.0% thaumatin. When related to body weight,
organ weights showed no treatment-related variations. Microscopic
examination revealed no changes that the authors considered to be
related to the administration of thaumatin (Barker et al., 1981).
Long-term studies
No information available.
Observations in man
The intense sweetness of the fruit of Thaumatococcus daniellii
was first described by a British surgeon in the Pharmaceutical
Journal (Daniell, 1855).
The long history of human use of the fruit as a sweetener, now
largely displaced by sugar in urban areas, and the absence of unusual
or toxic effects following its ingestion, is attested by numerous
affidavits from village elders in Ghana and the Ivory Coast
(Higginbotham & Stephens, 1984).
Thaumatin was assessed for oral allergenicity in humans by giving
100 mg/day thaumatin or lactose in gelatin capsules to 4 women and 6
men for a period of 14 days using a double-blind cross-over design.
The volunteers were randomly assigned to 2 groups of 5 each and given
either the test substance or lactose. All volunteers were prick-tested
for common allergens and with a solution of thaumatin before the
study. Seven volunteers were tested with thaumatin a second time
before the study commenced to determine if sensitization to thaumatin
could result from prick-testing itself. No sensitization was observed.
At the completion of the study a further prick test was performed to
determine if sensitization had occurred following thaumatin ingestion.
No sensitization was detected. Blood was taken from the volunteers at
the commencement and again after the 28-day study period. Examination
of the sera for antibodies to thaumatin by the passive subcutaneous
anaphylaxis technique in baboons and rhesus monkeys showed no
reactions when challenged s.c. or orally with thaumatin. Clinical
assessment showed no treatment-related allergic effects (Eaton et
al., 1981).
Thaumatin was assessed for oral sensitivity and irritation in
humans. Chewing gum containing 150 ppm thaumatin was administered to
25 volunteers, who each chewed five 5.3-gram gum sticks per day, each
stick for 15 minutes, over a period of 28 days. A similarly-
constituted group of 25 volunteers received untreated gum. Allocation
of volunteers to test and control groups was random and under a
double-blind code. No weal or flare reactions were noted in any
volunteers after prick-testing either before or after the treatment
period, nor were any visible signs of irritant or allergic responses
detected on the oral mucosa after chewing either treated or untreated
gum. The authors concluded that, under these conditions, thaumatin did
not cause irritation of the oral mucosa or any allergic responses
(McLeod et al., 1981).
A clinical study was conducted to determine the effects of
thaumatin on haematological and blood biochemistry parameters.
Eighteen male and 12 female volunteers were randomly assigned to 2
groups. Each participant was given a weekly supply of capsules, each
containing either 280 mg thaumatin or 210 mg egg albumin, and asked to
ingest one capsule each morning at 9 o'clock. This procedure was
followed for 13 consecutive weeks. The capsules were coded and their
composition was known only to the physician and consultant
pathologist. Blood was collected and analysed during the week
preceding the start of the trial and subsequently after 4, 8, and 12
weeks. No treatment-related changes in either the chemical or cellular
composition of the blood were observed in volunteers consuming
thaumatin when compared to the control group. The cumulative intake of
thaumatin by these subjects was 25 g, which is some 140 times the
estimated maximum consumer intake over this period (Tompkins &
Enticknap, 1984).
Prick-testing of laboratory personnel who had inhaled thaumatin
intermittently for periods up to 7 years showed that about one-half
(67/140) responded to common inhalant allergens. A positive response
to thaumatin was observed in 13 subjects, all except one of whom were
atopic or allergic (Higginbotham et al., 1983).
Comments
There is no evidence that thaumatin is treated differently than
other proteins with respect to hydrolysis or digestion. No antibodies
to thaumatin were detected in either rats or humans after prolonged
oral administration of quantities of thaumatin that substantially
exceed the anticipated human exposure, thus indicating that the intact
protein is not absorbed, and confirming the digestibility of
thaumatin. The possibility that hormonally-active polypeptides are
present in digests of thaumatin, and that these may be absorbed intact
and retain their activity, is unlikely because endocrine disturbances
were not observed in toxicological studies.
Thaumatin showed no mutagenic or teratogenic effects and no
allergenic effects were noted.
Variations in thyroid weights in a 90-day rat study (increases in
males and decreases in females) revealed no treatment-related
histological abnormalities; hypo- or hyperthyroid effects were not
observed in a follow-up study in which statistically-significant
differences in thyroid hormone levels (T3 and T4) were not observed.
Slight changes in haemoglobin concentrations, red blood cell
counts, and packed-cell volumes observed in rats and dogs fed up to
3.0% thaumatin were not observed in a 13-week clinical study in human
volunteers ingesting levels of thaumatin on the order of 140 times
higher than the anticipated maximum daily intake, which has been
calculated to be 1-2 mg/person/day.
The lack of toxicity, combined with its ready digestion to normal
food components, indicate that thaumatin's only dietary effect is to
make an insignificant contribution to the normal protein intake.
EVALUATION
Estimate of acceptable daily intake for man
ADI "not specified".
REFERENCES
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