IPCS INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME ON CHEMICAL SAFETY
Health and Safety Guide No. 41
CHLORDECONE
HEALTH AND SAFETY GUIDE
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, GENEVA 1990
This is a companion volume to Environmental Health Criteria 43:
Chlordecone
Published by the World Health Organization for the International
Programme on Chemical Safety (a collaborative programme of the
United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour
Organisation, and the World Health Organization)
This report contains the collective views of an international group of
experts and does not necessarily represent the decisions or the stated
policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International
Labour Organisation, or the World Health Organization
WHO Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Chlordecone : health and safety guide.
(Health and safety guide ; no. 41)
1. Kepone - standards I. Series
ISBN 92 4 151041 2 (NLM Classification: WA 240)
ISSN 0259-7268
(c) World Health Organization 1990
Publications of the World Health Organization enjoy copyright
protection in accordance with the provisions of Protocol 2 of the
Universal Copyright Convention. For rights of reproduction or
translation of WHO publications, in part or in toto, application
should be made to the Office of Publications, World Health
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. The World Health Organization
welcomes such applications.
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this
publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on
the part of the Secretariat of the World Health Organization
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or
of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or
boundaries.
The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers'
products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the
World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature
that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of
proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
1. PRODUCT IDENTITY AND USES
1.1. Identity
1.2. Physical and chemical properties
1.3. Analytical methods
1.4. Uses
2. SUMMARY AND EVALUATION
2.1. Human exposure
2.2. Kinetics and metabolism
2.3. Effects on animals
2.4. Effects on human beings
2.5. Effects on the environment
3. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
3.1. Conclusions
3.2. Recommendations
4. HUMAN HEALTH HAZARDS, PREVENTION AND PROTECTION, EMERGENCY ACTION
4.1. Main human health hazards, prevention and protection,
first aid
4.1.1. Advice to physicians
4.1.1.1 Symptoms of poisoning
4.1.1.2 Medical advice
4.1.2. Health surveillance advice
4.2. Safety in use
4.3. Explosion and fire hazards
4.3.1. Explosion hazards
4.3.2. Fire hazards
4.4. Storage
4.4.1. Leaking containers in store
4.5. Transport
4.6. Spillage and disposal
4.6.1. Spillage
4.6.2. Disposal
5. HAZARDS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT AND THEIR PREVENTION
5.1. Hazards
5.2. Prevention
6. INTERNATIONAL CHEMICAL SAFETY CARD
7. CURRENT REGULATIONS, GUIDELINES, AND STANDARDS
7.1. Prevous evaluations by international bodies
7.2. Exposure limit values
7.3. Specific restrictions
7.4. Labelling, packaging, and transport
7.5. Waste disposal
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
The Environmental Health Criteria (EHC) documents produced by the
International Programme on Chemical Safety include an assessment of
the effects on the environment and on human health of exposure to a
chemical or combination of chemicals, or physical or biological
agents. They also provide guidelines for setting exposure limits.
The purpose of a Health and Safety Guide is to facilitate the
application of these guidelines in national chemical safety
programmes. The first three sections of a Health and Safety Guide
highlight the relevant technical information in the corresponding EHC.
Section 4 includes advice on preventive and protective measures and
emergency action; health workers should be thoroughly familiar with
the medical information to ensure that they can act efficiently in an
emergency. Within the Guide is an International Chemical Safety Card
which should be readily available, and should be clearly explained, to
all who could come into contact with the chemical. The section on
regulatory information has been extracted from the legal file of the
International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals (IRPTC) and from
other United Nations sources.
The target readership includes occupational health services, those in
ministries, governmental agencies, industry, and trade unions who are
involved in the safe use of chemicals and the avoidance of
environmental health hazards, and those wanting more information on
this topic. An attempt has been made to use only terms that will be
familiar to the intended user. However, sections 1 and 2 inevitably
contain some technical terms. A bibliography has been included for
readers who require further background information.
Revision of the information in this Guide will take place in due
course, and the eventual aim is to use standardized terminology.
Comments on any difficulties encountered in using the Guide would be
very helpful and should be addressed to:
The Manager
International Programme on Chemical Safety
Division of Environmental Health
World Health Organization
1211 Geneva 27
Switzerland
THE INFORMATION IN THIS GUIDE SHOULD BE CONSIDERED AS A STARTING POINT
TO A COMPREHENSIVE HEALTH AND SAFETY PROGRAMME
1. PRODUCT IDENTITY AND USES
1.1 Identity
Common name: chlordecone
Chemical structure:
Molecular formula: C10Cl10O
Common trade names: GC 1189, Kepone, Merex
Common synonyms: decachloro-pentacyclo[5,2,1,02,6,03,9,05,8]-
decan-4-one; decachloro-octahydro-1,3,4-
metheno- 2H,5H-cyclobuta [cd]-pentalen-2-one
CAS chemical name: 1,1a,3,3a,4,5,5,5a,5b,6-decachlorooctahydro-1,3,4-
metheno- 2H-cyclobuta [cd]pentalen-2-one
CAS registry number: 143-50-0
Relative molecular mass: 490.6
1.2 Physical and Chemical Properties
Chlordecone is a tan- to white-coloured solid that sublimes with some
decomposition at 350°C. Its vapour pressure is less than 3 × 10-7
at 25°C.
In the anhydrous form, chlordecone is soluble in organic solvents,
such as benzene and hexane. Oxygenated solvents, such as alcohols and
ketones, are recommended for the hydrated form. Chlordecone is also
soluble in light petroleum and can be recrystallized from 85-90%
aqueous ethanol. It is readily soluble in acetone.
Chlordecone is an extremely stable compound and is not expected to be
degraded in the environment to any significant extent. Microbial
action has been shown to transform chlordecone into monohydro- and
possibly dihydrochlordecone.
Technical grade chlordecone contains from 88.6% to 99.4% chlordecone,
3.5-6% water, and 0.1% hexachlorocyclopentadiene. It has been
formulated as a wettable powder (50% chlordecone), emulsifiable
concentrates, granules, and dust.
1.3 Analytical Methods
Gas chromatography with electron capture detection is the method most
widely used for the determination of chlordecone.
1.4 Uses
Chlordecone was used as an insecticide and as a base material in the
manufacture of the insecticide kelevan. Recently, the use of
chlordecone has become increasingly restricted, and it has been banned
in several countries (section 7.3).
2. SUMMARY AND EVALUATION
2.1 Human Exposure
Exposure of the general population through the normal use of
chlordecone can be regarded as minimal and is mainly related to
residues in food.
Small children may be exposed when playing with insect traps.
2.2 Kinetics and Metabolism
Chlordecone is readily absorbed following ingestion by animals and
human beings. It is also absorbed following inhalation and dermal
exposure. It is widely distributed in the body; accumulation occurs
principally in the liver. The half-life in the body is of the order
of several months and elimination is slow, mainly via the faeces.
2.3 Effects on Animals
Chlordecone was moderately toxic in acute studies on rats, the oral
LD50 values ranging from 95 to 132 mg/kg body weight. It
accumulates in the body.
Toxic effects following repeated exposure include neurological
symptoms, especially tremors, liver hypertrophy (at 10 mg/kg body
weight per day) with enzyme induction (at 1 mg/kg diet in the rat, the
lowest dose tested), centrilobular hepatocellular necrosis, and
hepatobiliary dysfunction. It can impair reproduction (mouse,
10 mg/kg diet or 0.5 mg/kg body weight per day, lowest dose level
tested) and is fetotoxic (rat, 2 mg/kg body weight per day). A
no-adverse-effect level has not been identified.
Chlordecone was not generally active in short-term tests for genetic
activity.
Chlordecone produces hepatocellular carcinomas in both sexes in mice
and rats.
2.4 Effects on Human Beings
A large number of cases of occupational poisoning were reported in a
manufacturing plant where work hygiene and safety precautions were
insufficient. Neurological symptoms, especially nervousness and
tremors, together with oligospermia and joint pains were reported.
2.5 Effects on the Environment
The environmental hazard posed by chlordecone is associated with its
stability and persistence in sediments, which provide a long-term
source of contamination, together with its massive bioaccumulation in
aquatic food chains. One of the largest reserves of chlordecone in
food is found in the edible portion of contaminated fish. Although
chlordecone is only slightly soluble in water, levels of between 0.35
and 1 µg/litre are sufficient to reduce algal growth, thereby
affecting productivity at other trophic levels. Chlordecone is
acutely and chronically toxic for aquatic invertebrates and causes
loss of equilibrium, reduction in reproductive success, and decreased
shell growth at sublethal concentrations. Reduction in mysid
populations due to low-level chlordecone contamination has important
consequences for fish productivity. Symptoms of exposure range from
diminished activity and emaciation to abnormal development and death.
The few data available indicate that chlordecone is not acutely toxic
for terrestrial invertebrates. Subacute doses of chlordecone induce
significant toxic effects in birds including tremors, liver damage,
and reproductive failure.
3. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
3.1 Conclusions
1. Serious illness has been suffered by workers occupationally
overexposed to chlordecone.
2. On the basis of the findings in mice and rats, this chemical
should be considered, for practical purposes, as being potentially
carcinogenic for human beings.
3. For the above reason, reservations must remain about the
occurrence of residues of chlordecone in food.
4. Adverse effects on the organisms studied, as well as persistence,
suggest that chlordecone presents a long-term hazard for the
environment.
5. Taking into account these considerations, it is felt that the use
of this chemical should be discouraged, except where there is no
adequate alternative.
3.2 Recommendations
1. Careful surveillance should be maintained over the future
production of chlordecone and the nature and extent of its use.
2. The levels in the environment should continue to be monitored.
3. It is desirable that a long-term follow-up study should be
conducted on workers whose health has been affected by chlordecone.
4. HUMAN HEALTH HAZARDS, PREVENTION AND PROTECTION, EMERGENCY
RESPONSE
4.1 Main Human Health Hazards, Prevention and Protection, First Aid
Chlordecone is an organochlorine insecticide. It is toxic and can be
hazardous for human beings if incorrectly or carelessly handled. It
is therefore essential that the correct precautions should be observed
during handling and use.
For details, see the International Chemical Safety Card (section 6).
4.1.1 Advice to physicians
4.1.1.1 Symptoms of poisoning
Chlordecone is toxic by mouth, by skin contact (especially liquid
formulations), and by inhalation of dust from powder concentrates. It
acts as a stimulant of the central nervous system.
Following accidental ingestion or overexposure, symptoms may include
headache, nervousness, dizziness, nausea, joint pains, weakness in the
legs, tremors, and convulsions.
Organochlorine compounds can cause respiratory depression. They also
sensitize the heart to endogenous catecholamines leading to
ventricular fibrillation and cardiac arrest in severe cases.
Respiratory depression may lead to metabolic acidosis and, if
necessary, blood gases should be checked. The use of an ECG monitor
is recommended if the symptoms are severe.
4.1.1.2 Medical advice
Medical treatment is largely symptomatic and supportive and directed
against convulsions and anoxaemia. Because many liquid formulations
contain hydrocarbon solvent, vomiting should not be induced and
emetics are contraindicated. If swallowed, the stomach should be
emptied as soon as possible by careful gastric lavage (with a cuffed
endotracheal tube), avoiding aspiration into the lungs. This should
be followed by intragastric administration of 3-4 tablespoons of
activated charcoal and 30 g magnesium sulfate or sodium sulfate in a
30% aqueous solution. Oily purgatives are contraindicated. Fats,
oils, or milk should not be given.
If convulsions occur, anti-convulsants should be given, e.g., diazepam
10 mg, slowly intravenously (children 1-5 mg), repeated as necessary;
or thiopental sodium, or hexobarbital sodium, slowly intravenously, in
a dose of 10 mg/kg with a maximum total dose of up to 750 mg for an
adult. On account of their short action, these barbiturates should
always be followed by phenobarbital given orally at 3 mg/kg (up to
200 mg for an adult), or phenobarbital sodium given intramuscularly at
3 mg/kg (also up to 200 mg for an adult).
Morphine and its derivatives, epinephrine and noradrenaline, should
never be given.
An unobstructed airway must be maintained. Oxygen and/or artificial
respiration may be necessary.
4.1.2 Health surveillance advice
Pre-employment and annual general medical examinations are advised for
regularly exposed workers. Special attention should be paid to liver
and testicular function.
4.2 Safety in Use
Handling liquid formulations: Wear protective neoprene or PVC
gloves, cotton overalls, rubber
boots, and faceshield
Handling powder formulations: Avoid raising a dust cloud; wear
protective gloves and dust mask;
follow the advice relating to
personal hygiene
4.3 Explosion and Fire Hazards
4.3.1 Explosion hazards
The explosion hazard will depend on the solvent used in the
formulation, or on the characteristics of the dust.
4.3.2 Fire hazards
Liquid products containing organic solvents may be flammable.
Extinguish fires with alcohol-resistant foam, carbon dioxide, or
powder. With sufficient burning or external heat, chlordecone will
decompose, emitting toxic fumes. Fire-fighters should wear a
self-contained breathing apparatus, eye protection, and full
protective clothing.
Confine the use of water spray to the cooling of unaffected stock,
thus avoiding the accumulation of polluted run-off from the site.
4.4 Storage
Products should be stored in locked buildings, preferably dedicated to
insecticides.
Keep products out of reach of children and unauthorized personnel. Do
not store near foodstuffs or animal feed.
4.4.1 Leaking containers in store
Take precautions and use appropriate personal protection. Empty any
product remaining in damaged/leaking containers into a clean empty
drum, which should then be tightly closed and suitably labelled.
Sweep up spillage with sawdust, sand, or earth (moisten for powders),
and dispose of safely.
Emptied leaking liquid containers should be rinsed with at least
1 litre water per 20-litre drum. Swirl round to rinse the walls,
empty, and add the rinsings to the sawdust or earth. Do not re-use
containers for any other purpose. Puncture the container to prevent
re-use.
4.5 Transport
Comply with any local requirements regarding movements of hazardous
goods. Do not transport with feed or foodstuffs. Make sure that
containers are in good condition and labels undamaged before despatch.
4.6 Spillage and Disposal
4.6.1 Spillage
Before dealing with any spillage, precautions should be taken as
required and appropriate personal protection should be used.
Prevent liquid from spreading or contaminating other cargo and
vegetation, and avoid pollution of surface waters and ground water by
using the most suitable available material, e.g., earth or sand.
Absorb spilled liquid with sawdust, sand, or earth; sweep up and place
in a closeable container for later transfer to a safe place for
disposal.
As soon as possible after the spillage, and before re-use of the area,
cover all contaminated sites with damp sawdust, sand, or earth; sweep
up and place in a closeable container for later transfer to a safe
place for disposal. Care should be taken to avoid run-off into
surface waters or drains.
4.6.2 Disposal
Surplus product, contaminated absorbents and containers should be
disposed of in an appropriate way. Chlordecone is not readily
decomposed chemically or biologically and is relatively persistent.
Waste material should be burned only in a proper incinerator designed
for organochlorine waste disposal (1000°C and 30-min residence time,
with effluent gas scrubbing). If this is not possible, bury in an
approved dump or landfill where there is no risk of contamination of
surface or ground water. Comply with any local legislation regarding
disposal of toxic wastes.
5. HAZARDS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT AND THEIR PREVENTION
5.1 Hazards
Chlordecone is an extremely persistent organochlorine insecticide,
that bioaccumulates massively in aquatic food-chains. Adverse effects
on the organisms studied indicate that it presents a long-term hazard
for the environment.
5.2 Prevention
Industrial discharges from manufacturing, formulation, and technical
applications should not be allowed to pollute the environment and
should be treated properly.
Any spillage or unused product should be prevented from spreading to
vegetation or waterways and should be treated and disposed of
properly.
6. INTERNATIONAL CHEMICAL SAFETY CARD
This card should be easily available to all health workers concerned
with, and users of, chlordecone. It should be displayed at, or
near, entrances to areas where there is potential exposure to
chlordecone, and on processing equipment and containers. The card
should be translated into the appropriate language(s). All persons
potentially exposed to the chemical should also have the instructions
on the chemical safety card clearly explained.
Space is available on the card for the insertion of the National
Occupational Exposure Limit, the address and telephone number of the
National Poison Control Centre and for local trade names.
CHLORDECONE
CAS chemical name: 1,1a,3,3a,4,5,5,5a,5b,6-decachlorooctahydro-1,3,4-metheno- 2H-cyclobuta [cd]pentalen-2-one
CAS registry number: 143-50-0
RTECS registry number: PC8575000
Molecular formula: C10Cl10O
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
Melting point, sublimates at (°C) 350 Chlordecone (Kepone) is a tan- to white-coloured
Vapour pressure (mmHg at 25°C) 3 × 10-7 solid; it is an extremely stable compound that is
Relative molecular mass 490.6 not expected to be degraded in the environment to
Solubility: any significant extent; chlordecone has been used
in water (mg/litre) 0.35-1 (low) as an insecticide, but recently its use has become
in acetone readily soluble increasingly restricted
the anhydrous form is soluble
in benzene and hexane
the hydrated form is soluble
in alcohols and ketones
HAZARDS/SYMPTOMS PREVENTION AND PROTECTION FIRST AID
GENERAL: Potential human
carcinogen: on repeated exposure
chlordecone can accumulate in the
body
SKIN: Overexposure may cause Avoid skin contact; wear Remove contaminated clothing
poisoning protective clothing, PVC or immediately; wash skin with water and soap
neoprene gloves, rubber boots
EYES: Irritation, redness Wear faceshield or goggles Flush with clean water for 15 min; if
irritation persists, seek medical
attention
INHALATION: Dust may irritate Wear dust mask
INGESTION: Unlikely occupational Do not eat, drink, or smoke
hazard during work; wash hands before
eating, drinking, or smoking
Accidental or intentional ingestion Obtain medical attention immediately; do not
may cause poisoning induce vomiting; keep patient at rest, lying
face downward; ensure clear airway; fat,
milk, or oil should not be given
ENVIRONMENT: Toxic for aquatic Do not spill on animal feed or
and terrestrial life; bioaccumulates in waterways
SPILLAGE STORAGE FIRE AND EXPLOSION
Take appropriate personal Products should be stored in Liquid products will burn and emulsifiable
precautions; prevent liquid locked buildings, preferably concentrates are miscible with water;
from spreading or contaminating dedicated to insecticides; extinguish fires with alcohol-resistant
other cargo, vegetation, or keep products out of reach of foam, carbon dioxide, or powder; with
waterways, by making a barrier of the children and unauthorized sufficient burning or external heat,
most suitable available material, personnel; do not store near chlordecone will decompose, emitting toxic fumes;
e.g., earth or sand; absorb spilled foodstuffs or animal feed the smoke and fumes could be injurious
liquid with sawdust, sand, or through inhalation or absorption through the
earth; sweep up and skin; therefore, fire-fighters should wear
place it in a closeable container protective clothing and self-contained breathing
for later safe disposal apparatus; confine the use of water spray
to the cooling of unaffected stock, thus
avoiding polluted run-off from the site
WASTE DISPOSAL NATIONAL INFORMATION
Chlordecone is not readily decomposed chemically National Occupational Exposure Limit:
or biologically and is extremely persistent; waste
material should be burned in a proper incinerator
designed for organochlorine waste disposal; if
this is not possible, bury in an approved National Poison Control Centre:
dump or landfill where there is no risk of
contamination of surface or ground water;
comply with any local legislation regarding
disposal of toxic wastes Local trade names:
7. CURRENT REGULATIONS, GUIDELINES, AND STANDARDS
The information given in this section has been extracted from the
International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals (IRPTC) legal
file and other UN sources. Its intention is to give the reader a
representative but not exhaustive overview of current regulations,
guidelines, and standards.
The reader should be aware that regulatory decisions about chemicals
taken in a certain country can only be fully understood in the
framework of the legislation of that country. Furthermore, the
regulations and guidelines of all countries are subject to change and
should always be verified with the appropriate regulatory authorities
before application.
7.1 Previous Evaluations by International Bodies
IARC (1979) evaluated the carcinogenic hazard resulting from exposure
to chlordecone and concluded that "there is sufficient evidence for
its carcinogenicity in mice and rats. In the absence of adequate data
in humans, it is reasonable, for practical purposes, to regard
chlordecone as if it presented a carcinogenic risk to humans".
No acceptable daily intake (ADI) for chlordecone has been established
by the FAO/WHO Joint Meeting on Pesticide Residues.
7.2 Exposure Limit Values
The US National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
recommended an exposure limit of 1 µg/m3 for 15 minutes in 1976, and
the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) established action levels
for chlordecone for finfish, shellfish, and crabs of 0.3, 0.3, and
0.4 mg/kg (ppm), respectively.
7.3 Specific Restrictions
The use of chlordecone has been banned in, among others, Belgium, the
Federal Republic of Germany, Singapore, Sweden, the United Kingdom,
and the USA. Its use has been severely restricted in, among others,
the German Democratic Republic and Venezuela.
7.4 Labelling, Packaging, and Transport
European Community legislation requires the labelling of chlordecone
as a dangerous substance using the symbol:
The label must read:
Toxic in contact with the skin and if swallowed; possible risks
of irreversible effects; do not breath dust; wear suitable
protective clothing and gloves. If you feel unwell, seek
medical advice (show the label where possible).
European Community legislation classifies chlordecone in Class 1c for
the purposes of determining the label for pesticide preparations
containing chlordecone and other active ingredients. When solid they
should be labelled "toxic" at concentrations greater than 33% and
"harmful" at concentrations between 1.7% and 33%; when liquid or
gaseous, they should be labelled "toxic" at concentrations greater
than 20% and "harmful" at concentrations between 1% and 20%. Member
states should ensure that pesticides cannot be placed on the market
unless their packaging, fastenings, and labels comply with the
requirements laid down.
7.5 Waste Disposal
In the USA, chlordecone is identified as a "toxic waste", subject to
handling, transport, treatment, storage, disposal, permit, and
notification requirements. An owner or operator of a hazardous waste
incinerator must achieve 99.99% destruction and removal efficiency for
this substance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FAO (1985a) Guidelines for the packaging and storage of pesticides.
Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
FAO (1985b) Guidelines for the disposal of waste pesticides and
pesticide containers on the farm. Rome, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations.
FAO (1985c) Guidelines on good labelling practice for pesticides.
Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
FAO (1986) International code of conduct on the distribution and
use of pesticides. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations.
GIFAP (1982) Guidelines for the safe handling of pesticides during
their formulation, packing, storage and transport. Brussels,
Groupement International des Associations Nationales des Fabricants de
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GIFAP (1983) Guidelines for the safe and effective use of
pesticides. Brussels, Groupement International des Associations
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pesticide poisoning. Brussels, Groupement International des
Associations Nationales des Fabricants de Produits Agrochimiques.
GIFAP (1987) Guidelines for the safe transport of pesticides.
Brussels, Groupement International des Associations Nationales des
Fabricants de Produits Agrochimiques.
IARC (1972-present) IARC monographs on the evaluation of
carcinogenic risk of chemicals to man. Lyons, International Agency
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IRPTC (1985) IRPTC file on treatment and disposal methods for waste
chemicals. Geneva, International Register for Potentially Toxic
Chemicals, United Nations Environment Programme.
IRPTC (1987) IRPTC legal file 1986. Geneva, International Register
of Potentially Toxic Chemicals, United Nations Environment Programme.
PLESTINA, R. (1984) Prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of
insecticide poisoning. Geneva, World Health Organization
(unpublished document WHO/VBC/84.889).
SAX, N.I. (1984) Dangerous properties of industrial materials. New
York, Van Nostrand Reinhold.
UNITED NATIONS (1986) Recommendations on the transport of dangerous
goods. 4th ed. New York, United Nations.
US NIOSH/OSHA (1981) Occupational health guidelines for chemical
hazards. 3 Vols. Washington DC, US Department of Health and Human
Services, US Department of Labor (Publication No. DHSS(NIOSH) 01-123).
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