WHO/Food Add./24.65 FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series No. 38A SPECIFICATIONS FOR IDENTITY AND PURITY AND TOXICOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF SOME ANTIMICROBIALS AND ANTIOXIDANTS The content of this document is the result of the deliberations of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives which met 8-17 December 1964a a Eighth Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1965, 309; FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series 1965, 38. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION GENERAL PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SPECIFICATIONS Source and nature of impurities SUBSTANCES STUDIED GENERAL PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE TOXICOLOGICAL RE-EVALUATION NOTES ON THE SPECIFICATIONS CONTAINED IN THE MONOGRAPHS Note to the reader ACCEPTABLE DAILY INTAKE ZONES FOR MAN OF SOME ANTIMICROBIALS AND ANTIOXIDANTS THE MONOGRAPHS APPENDIX A. METHODS APPENDIX B. TEST SOLUTIONS INTRODUCTION The Joint FAO/WHO Conference on Food Additivesa which met in Geneva in 1955 recommended that the two organizations collect and disseminate information on food additives. As a result, a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives was established. This Committee has met eight times and issued the following reports: (i) "General principles governing the use of food additives: First Report";b (ii) "Procedures for the testing of intentional food additives to establish their safety for use: Second Report;c (iii) "Specifications for identity and purity of food additives (antimicrobial preservatives and antioxidants): Third Report";d (iv) "Specifications for identity and purity of food additives (food colours): Fourth Report;e (v) "Evaluation of the carcinogenic hazards of food additives: Fifth Report";f (vi) "Evaluation of the toxicity of a number of antimicrobials and antioxidants: Sixth Report";g (vii) "Specifications for the identity and purity of food additives and their toxicological evaluation: emulsifiers, stabilizers, bleaching and maturing agents: Seventh report";h (viii) "Specifications for the identity and purity of food additives and their toxicological evaluation: food colours and certain antimicrobials and antioxidants: Eighth Report".i a FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series, 1956, 11; Wld. Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1956, 107. b FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series, 1957, 15; Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1957, 129. c FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series, 1958, 17; Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1958, 144. d These specifications were subsequently revised and published as Specifications for identity and purity of food additives, vol. I, Antimicrobial preservatives and antioxidants, 1962, Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. e These specifications were subsequently revised and published as Specifications for identity and purity of food additives, vol. II, Food colours, 1963, Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. f FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series 1961, 29; Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1961, 220. g FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series, 1962, 31; Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1962, 228. h FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series, 1963, 35; Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1963, 281. i FAO Nutrition Meeting Report Series, 1965, 38; Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1965, 309. GENERAL PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SPECIFICATIONS Whereas a natural food may vary in composition, sometimes to a considerable degree or in undefined ways, considerations of public health dictate that, as a matter of principle, additives to food should be of known composition and purity. In fact, modern methods make it possible to produce chemicals of greater purity and uniformity by synthesis than is usually achieved by derivation from substances of natural origin. The adoption of official specifications for food additives would give assurance to the consuming public that substances meeting established standards of purity are available for use in food. At the present time most food legislation merely indicates by name the substances which may be used in a particular food. It is a well-known fact that chemicals am produced in a variety of technical and refined grades. Toxicological evaluation, which is a costly and time-consuming procedure, must be related to the particular grade or quality of chemical intended for use in food. The adoption of specifications of purity of food additives would provide a means of accurate identification of the additive for regulatory purposes and would limit the known undesirable ingredients or contaminants to acceptable tolerance levels. The existence of specifications, agreed upon by qualified specialists, serves to ensure a degree of reproducibility and of conformity to criteria of quality which are acceptable to both chemical manufacturers and food processors. Furthermore, established specifications might well act as a guide in the development of new chemicals of quality suitable for food use. It is important that specifications for identity and quality of food additives should be no more stringent that necessary to accomplish their purpose and that they should be reasonably attainable by the producing industries. Otherwise, the consuming public would ultimately bear an unnecessary additional cost of production and control. One of the most important areas in which specifications of purity would be of particular value is the determination of the safety for use of food additives. It is essential to know the identity and concentration of the major component or components of a food additive before carrying out an effective toxicological investigation of its properties. Even small differences in composition of a compound may materially alter the results of toxicity tests. The investigator must also know the nature and quantity of the important impurities. Toxicologists have frequently emphasized that impurities or minor constituents may have a significant importance far greater than their amounts might indicate. Information relating to physical properties such as solubility is also essential. In many animal tests, particularly with some of the relatively inert food additives, large amounts of the chemical are required and therefore the investigator must be certain that he has sufficient material of a uniform nature or a reliable source of the material of the same composition. In certain instances, years of animal studies have been discarded because the composition of the food additive changed during the test period. Furthermore even if tests demonstrate beyond any reasonable doubt that a particular substance is safe for use, their value is impaired when the food additive used commercially differs significantly from the material tested. The results of a single investigation are not likely to answer for all time the question of the safety for use of a particular material. The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives stated at its first session that permitted additives should be subjected to continuing observation for possible deleterious effects under changing conditions of use and should be reappraised whenever indicated by advances in knowledge. Specifications based on the material used in previous tests would therefore be of great value in making certain that a comparable product was employed in such reappraisals. The divergent results which are occasionally encountered in the toxicological investigation of the same product may conceivably be due to variations in the composition of batches of the material under test. SOURCE AND NATURE OF IMPURITIES The purity of a food additive, as the term is here employed, refers to its freedom from substances other than those named in specifications. "Foreign substances" or "impurities" not included in the specifications may be, for example, simple inorganic salts or other substances not necessarily deleterious from the functional or safety standpoint. Impurities my arise from the raw materials used in the manufacture of chemicals (especially when they are complex natural substances), from substances used in processing steps, from solvents used in extraction or crystallization and from equipment. They may also be unreacted intermediates or by-products formed in the course of processing, such as incompletely esterified acids or isomeric derivatives. Products of decomposition during storage, such as may result from oxidation, hydrolysis or polymerization, are likewise regarded as impurities. However, the constituents of polymeric or other mixtures of reproducible composition are not regarded as impurities if they contribute to the functional properties of the substance as a whole and are not deleterious. Obviously contaminants like dirt, soot, rust, lubricants and insect fragments must be avoided in manufacture, packaging and storage of food additives. Whereas their presence is generally revealed in the application of the tests given in the second part of this manual, no specific tests for the detection and identification of these contaminants are included. From the foregoing discussion it is obvious that, depending on the original materials and manufacturing procedure, impurities may be volatile or non-volatile, organic or inorganic, deleterious or non-deleterious. The important factors to be considered are: (a) Is the impurity one which might jeopardize the safe use of the food additive? (b) Is the amount of impurity sufficient to affect the activity or usefulness of the food additive? (c) Can the impurity be reduced in amount or avoided by good manufacturing practice? (d) Is the impurity of sufficient consequence to justify a limitation? Whereas food additives are usually employed in relatively small quantities and traces of impurities may pose no serious health hazards, prudence dictates that reasonable limits be established for impurities, consistent with good manufacturing practice as judged by modern standards. For this reason it will be noted that a general tolerance limit is placed in the monographs on arsenic and lead, which my occur in traces as they do in naturally derived food additives and, indeed, in foods themselves, even under optimum conditions. Lower tolerance levels are established in the case of those additives which are employed in relatively large proportions in foods. In particular cases, tolerance levels for other elements may be given. It should be emphasized that these specifications are drawn up only for purposes of identification of each substance and with a view to the establishment of a satisfactory level of purity for substances used as food additives. The principles guiding the work of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives have been extensively dealt with in the previous reports of this Committee mentioned above. It may be, however, useful to restate here the objectives aimed at in establishing specifications for food additives. These objectives are: (a) to identify the substance that has been subjected to biological and toxicological testing; (b) to ensure that the substance is of the quality required for safe use in food; (c) to reflect and encourage good manufacturing practice. SUBSTANCES STUDIED The eighth meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives had before it a list of antimicrobials and antioxidants which had been considered at its sixth meeting, but for which no specifications for identity and purity were available at that time. It was agreed that it would be advisable to delete from this list any substance that was not known to be in use as a food additive, or on which the information available to the Committee was insufficient for compilation of specifications or for toxicological evaluation. On this basis the following three substances were not considered: (a) Distearyl thiodipropionate. According to information available to the Committee, this antioxidant is not on any of the permitted lists. (b) Gum guaiac. This additive being a natural substance, does not lend itself to precise definition. (a) Isopropyl citrate mixture. This additive is a product of a single company, which has a use patent, and the specifications have not been made available to the Committee. The substances for which the Committee has prepared specifications are: Potassium nitrate o-Phenylphenol Sodium nitrate Sodium o-phenylphenol Potassium nitrite Formic acid Sodium nitrite Thiodipropionic acid Diphenyl Dilauryl thiodipropionate In addition, the toxicological data for the following compounds were evaluated: Butylated hydroxytoluene Sulfur dioxide Hexamethylenetetramine Sodium sulfite Propyl Sodium metabisulfite Octyl and dodecyl gallates Sodium hydrogen sulfite Nordihydroguaiaretic acid Tartaric acid Phosphoric acid The detailed specifications for these compounds are to be found in the publication Specifications for Identity and parity of food additives, vol. I, Antimicrobial preservatives and antioxidants, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1962. However, for convenience, an abbreviated specification is reproduced here immediately preceding the toxicological evaluation. With regard to the purity tests, the following was re-emphasized: The nature of impurities that might be present in a food additive has already been discussed. In the case of arsenic and lead, limits of 3 and 10 mg/kg respectively may be considered as acceptable unless otherwise stated in the specifications. It is stressed that those limits are established to ensure food manufacturing practice and not, in most cases, because of any great toxicological concern, since food additives are commonly used in relatively low concentrations. However, it was agreed that it is always desirable to keep the level of arsenic and lead in the food as low as possible. The question of tolerance limits for mercury, calcium, selenium and fluorine was also considered. As traces of these elements in food additives may arise only in rare cases, it was agreed to fix limits only when these elements may be introduced through raw materials or conditions of manufacture. The methods to be used for the detection and determination of the elements, unless given in the monographs, are shown in Appendix A. GENERAL PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE TOXICOLOGICAL RE-EVALUATION The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives was requested by a committee reporting to the Codex Alimentarius Commission to reconsider, in the light of new biological data, some antimicrobials and antioxidants which had previously been evaluated in the Sixth Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee. These compounds are: Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHP) Propyl, octyl and dodecyl gallates Hexamethylenetetramine Nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA) Phosphoric acid Sulfur dioxide, sodium sulfite, sodium metabisulfite and sodium hydrogen sulfite Tartaric acid The general principles governing the re-evaluation of these additives were essentially those laid down in previous reports of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives.a The meaning of the two zones of acceptability is made clear in the Sixth and Seventh Reports. The following extract from the Seventh Reportb is included for clarification: "The concept of using zones of acceptability was put forward in the Committee's sixth reportc for several reasons. First, the primary intention of the Committee is to give guidance to national bodies to assist them in their choice of food additives which are suitable for their particular needs, safe in use, and can be regarded as acceptable for purposes of international trade. Secondly, it is one of the principles underlying food additive control that the quantity of a food additive used should not be greater than is necessary to ensure the technological effect required. Thirdly, the dietary pattern a FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series, 1956, 11; Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1956, 107. FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series, Wld. Hlth Org. Rep. Ser., 1957, 15. Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1957, 129. FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Ser., 1961. 29; Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1961, 220. FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series, 1962, 31. Wld. Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1962, 228. FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series, 1964, 35; Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1964, 281. b FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series. 1964, 35, 10; Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1964, 281, 10. c FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series, 1962, 31; Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1962, 228. differs greatly from one country to another and consequently the possible benefits and risks may also differ; the final decision on the use of any particular food additive can only be usefully taken on a national or regional rather than an international basis. The zone of acceptability represents the limits of intake that can be regarded as presenting no significant hazard to health on the basis of the evidence available. However, the problems that may arise from the introduction of a food additive into the diet may be complex and may sometimes require further study by experts in nutrition or other related fields. This is more likely to occur when high levels of dosage are used or if the food additive is to be used in foods mainly consumed by some special group in the community, such as children. It is for this reason that many countries tie proposed levels of a permitted substance to a specified use or uses. The Committee felt, however, that any attempt to tie zones of acceptability to specified use would be too restrictive at an international level, and some other solution of this problem was therefore sought. To ensure that expert opinion would be consulted whenever higher dosage levels of certain food additives were used or when special circumstances might arise, the Committee decided to split the zone of acceptability into two parts in selected cases. The first part has been termed the unconditional zone of acceptability and this represents levels of use that are effective technologically, at least for some purposes, and can be safely employed without further expert advice. The second part consists of a conditional zone of acceptability and represents levels of use that can be employed safely, but at which it is thought desirable that some degree of expert supervision and advice should be readily available. The unconditional zones of acceptability are therefore intended mainly to help developing countries that may not be able to call upon appropriate experts to guide them in the handling of particular problems in the field. The conditional zones of acceptability, on the other hand, are more likely to be of interest to those countries that have a more elaborate organization for dealing with food policy and the health hazards to the consumer. It must be emphasized that the whole zone of acceptability may be safely employed, that it provides for an adequate margin of safety, and that it is based on a careful consideration of the evidence available. The added caution imposed by restricting levels of use to the unconditional zone of acceptability is only necessary in the special circumstances already described." From the foregoing statement it should be quite clear that the inclusion of a food additive in the conditional zone only does NOT mean that this additive is considered unsuitable for use in food. As with the evaluation of all food additives, it has been difficult to assess the significance of certain experimental findings. As was stated in the Fifth Report, there is still no general agreement on the proper assessment of subcutaneous sarcomas. The relationship between the mutagenic effects of food additives on micro-organisms or on insects and possible genetic hazards from their use in human food is still under discussion and no agreed solution has been reached. A similar situation exists in the field of teratogenesis in spite of the intensive studies in progress in many countries. These considerations have raised difficulties, especially in the evaluation of hexamethylenetetramine. The observation of a relative increase in liver weight in the absence of detectable histological change is also difficult to interpret and requires further studies on the mechanism of this effect. This problem gives special difficulties in the evaluation of the toxicity of butylated hydroxytoluene and butylated hydroxyanisole. Work on the augmentation of toxicity under the influence of stress, such as partial starvation, has shown that toxic effects can be detected by these methods at dietary levels considerably lower than those that reveal toxicity in the unstressed animal in conventional tests. The assessment of these new methods is difficult at present because of lack of comparative data with different food additives. Toxicological evaluations of gum guaiac and of isopropyl citrate mixture were presented in the Sixth Report.d The Committee has now reconsidered these two additives but is unable to prepare specifications (see "Substances studied", page 5). The previous evaluations, therefore, are only valid for the materials actually used by the investigators concerned. After careful consideration of the new evidence put before it and reconsideration of the data available at the time of the Sixth Report, the Committee decided to change the evaluation of only one of the additives, namely tartaric acid, although several of the comments have been modified. The other evaluations of acceptable daily intakes remain the same as in the Sixth Report. d FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series, 1962, 31, 51-53 and 65-67; Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1962, 228, 51-53 and 65-67. NOTES ON THE SPECIFICATIONS CONTAINED IN THE MONOGRAPHS The most effective way of using the information contained in the monographs has been described in detail in the Sixth and Seventh Reports.a,b The following supplementary information is given on the conventions adopted in the specifications and on the evaluation of toxicological data. Nomenclature The title of each monograph contains the name by which the substance is most commonly known in food manufacture. Where other recognized names exist, they are listed as synonyms. For the technical names, the recommendations of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and the usages of the various national chemical societies have been taken into consideration. Where the structure or composition of a food additive has not been clearly elucidated, a description of its chemical nature is given instead of the chemical name. Formulas A chemical formula is given for each inorganic substance, and empirical and structural formulas are shown, where known, for each organic substance. All formulas represent the pure compounds and serve only a descriptive purpose. Molecular weight For the purpose of information and description, the molecular weights of the compounds are given where known. These have been calculated from the table of atomic weights approved by the Commission on Atomic Weights of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry in 1961. Temperature All temperatures are given in degrees centigrade. Solubility The solubilities of the substances contained in the monographs are given without reference to possible chemical changes. Unless otherwise stated, the standards adopted are room temperature and normal atmospheric pressure. a FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series, 1962, 31; Wld Hlth. Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1962, 228. b FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series, 1964, 35; Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1964, 281. Solvents Unless otherwise stated, reference to water in the monographs presumes distilled water. The term "ethanol" is used as referring to 95% v/v ethyl alcohol, and the term "absolute ethanol" for solvent containing not less than 98% v/v alcohol. Other v/v concentrations of ethanol may be specified in individual cases. Assays The assay methods described for the compounds are those that are considered to be the most suitable. A second method is included if the preferred procedure requires instrumentation not widely available. Methods Procedures for the determination of loss on drying, sulfated ash and physical constants and tests for the presence of certain metals are presented in Appendix A. Test solutions All reagents referred to in the identification and purity testa and in the assays are assumed to be analytical grade, unless otherwise specified. Test solutions (TS) are given in alphabetical order in Appendix B. In general solutions are brought to approximate normality or to a simple multiple or fraction of normality. When the normality or percentage composition of acids is not indicated, the concentrated form should be used. When the use of a test solution as indicator is specified in a test or assay, 3 drops of the solution should be added, generally as the endpoint is approached, unless otherwise directed. NOTE TO THE READER Any comments relating to specifications should be addressed to: Food Science and Technology Branch, Nutrition Division, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy. Any comments relating to biological data and their evaluation should be addressed to: Nutrition Unit, World Health Organization, Palais des Nations, Geneva, Switzerland. ACCEPTABLE DAILY INTAKE ZONES FOR MAN OF SOME ANTIMICROBIALS, ANTIOXIDANTS Substances considered Unconditional Conditional (mg/kg body-weight) Butylated hydroxytoluene - 0-0.5 Formic acida - 0-5 Propyl, octyl and dodecyl gallates 0-0.2 0.2-0.5 Gum guaiac See "Substances studied" Hexamethylenetetramineb - - lsopropyl citrate mixture See "Substances studied" Nitrates of sodium and potassiuma 0-5 5-10 Nitrites of sodium and potassiuma 0-0.4 0.4-0.8 Nordihydroguaiaretic acidc - - o-phenylphenol 0-0.2 0.2-1 Sodium o-phenylphenol 0-0.2 0.2-1 Phosphoric acida 0-5 5-15 Sulfur dioxide 0-0.35 0.35-1.5 Sodium sulfite 0-0.35 0.35-1.5 (calculated as SO2) Sodium metabisulfite 0-0.35 0.35-1.5 (calculated as SO2) Sodium hydrogen sulfite 0-0.35 0.35-1.5 (calculated as SO2) Tartaric acida 0-6 6-20 Thiodipropionic acid 0-3 3-15 Dilauryl thiodipropionate 0-3 3-15 Distearyl thiodipropionate See "Substances studied" Diphenyl 0-0.05 0.05-0.25 a Naturally occurring substances; the estimated acceptable intakes listed above do not include the amounts occurring naturally. b Not considered suitable for use in food pending the result of work now in progress. c Available scientific evidence inadequate for evaluation.
See Also: Toxicological Abbreviations