International Programme on Chemical Safety
Poisons Information Monograph 257
Chemical
Hexachlorocyclohexane is the correct name. The name Benzene Hexachloride is incorrectly used for 1,2,3,4,5,6- hexachlorocyclohexane. It should not be confused with hexachlorobenzene. The technical product is a mixture of isomers of this compound and related compounds that may vary in relative concentrations (Hayes, 1991). gamma- isomer is known as lindane.
Organochlorine Insecticide
Benzahex; Benzex; BHC; Compound-666; DBH; DOL; Dolmix; ENT 8 601; FBHC; Gammexane; Gexane; HCCH; HCH; Hexablanc; Hexachlor; Hexachloran; Hexachlorocyclohexane; Hexafor; Hexamul; Hexapoudre; Hexyclan; Hexylan; Hilbeech; Kotol; Soprocide; Submar; TBH; Technical BHC; Technical HCH; Tri-6 (HSDB, 2000)
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UN NUMBER: |
UN 2761; UN 2762; UN 2762; UN 2995; UN 2996 |
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IUPAC NUMBER: |
Not available |
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NCI NUMBER: |
Not available |
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RTECS NUMBER |
GV 3150000 |
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OHM-TADS NUMBER |
8100012 |
Agrocide, Ambrocide, Benesan, Benexane, Borer-Tox, Gamason (Hayes 1991)
To be completed by each centre.
The main target organ is the central nervous system. Technical HCH is a mixture of alpha, beta, gamma and delta isomers and these isomers differ qualitatively and quantitatively in biological activity. The alpha and gamma isomers are central nervous stimulants and beta and delta are depressants. In a mixture of these isomers, one component may counteract the effect of another element and the final effect may depend on the composition (Gosselin, 1984). It also affects the heart and the liver (Ryan & Terry, 1996).
After ingestion, there is a latent period varying from about half hour to several hours (usually between 2 and 12 hours).
Symptoms include: hyperirritability and central nervous excitation with vomiting, faintness, tremor, restlessness, muscle spasms, ataxia and clonic and tonic convulsions. In infants and children, hyperpyrexia may be a consequence of the convulsions. Ensuing coma of variable duration can lead to respiratory failure and death within 24 hours. Second episodes of convulsions may occur after consciousness is regained. Possibility of retrograde amnesia. Pulmonary oedema was observed in two fatal paediatric intoxications (Gosselin, 1984).
The cardiovascular effect caused by technical grade HCH is ECG abnormalities. Its hepatic effects are from chronic exposure and include: increase in the enzymes lactate dehydrogenase, leucine aminopeptidase and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (Ryan & Terri, 1996).
Dermal exposure may cause occasional dermatitis and urticaria. Prolonged dermal or inhalation exposure may cause systemic intoxication (Clayton, 1981).
Diagnosis is based on the history of exposure and clinical presentation especially CNS hyperirritability (Olson, 1990). Persistence of neurological and gastrointestinal disturbances might confirm the diagnosis. Blood levels may only be useful in order to confirm exposure and demonstrate the elimination of the chemical.
Emesis is contraindicated because convulsions may occur soon.
Do not give milk, fat or oils.
Do not administer adrenergic amines, which may increase myocardial irritability.
Control convulsions with appropriate drug regimen (see Convulsions Treatment Guide).
Maintain a clear airway.
Aspirate secretions from airway.
Perform cardio-respiratory resuscitation.
In case of eye contact, irrigate eyes immediately with water or saline.
In case of skin contact, wash skin with copious amount of soap and water.
In case of ingestion, gastric lavage may be indicated; in severe cases, precede endotracheal intubation with a cuffed tube.
Administer activated charcoal.
Cathartics (not mineral oils) may be administered.
Monitor fluid and electrolyte balance.
Monitor acid-base balance.
As produced initially by photochlorination of benzene, HCH contains 14-77% of the gamma-isomer. Technical grade HCH was available commercially in the US and fortified HCH (FHCH) containing a varying mixture of at least 5 isomers, with a minimum of 40% gamma isomer. Typical isomer distribution is as follows (% by wt):gamma, 40-45; delta, 20-22; alpha, 18-22; beta, 4; epsilon and inerts, 1 (IARC, 1979).
In USA, all HCH registration has been changed administratively to lindane registrations. HCH is no longer produced in USA and cannot be sold for domestic use by EPA regulation as well as many other countries (FCH, 1984).
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Chemical name: |
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, -Hexachlorocyclohexane |
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Relative molecular weight: |
290.85 (Lewis, 1997a; 1999) |
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Chemical formula: |
C6H6Cl6 |
Isomers differ in the spatial positions of the chlorine atoms on the boat and chair forms.
White or yellowish (Lewis, 1997a)
solid flakes or powder (Lewis, 1999)
persistent musty odour (Lewis, 1997a)
pH: no data
pKa: no data
Viscosity: not applicable
Solubility: Insoluble in water (FCH, 2000; Lewis, 1997a). Soluble in chloroform, ethanol, ether (ILO, 1983, Lewis, 1997a)
Boiling point: No data
Melting point: Vary widely with isomeric composition (Lewis, 1997a).
Flash point: not flammable.
Auto ignition point: not flammable.
Relative vapour density (air=1): no data
Vapour pressure: about 0.0317 mm Hg (20° C) (Lewis, 1999)
Previously used as an insecticide.
The only known use of HCH is as an insecticide, formerly widely used especially in the control of cotton insects (Gosselin, 1984).
In some countries, it may be used for control of leaf hoppers, stem borers in lowland rice, as seed treatment for reduction of wireworm damage in winter and spring sown cereals and for control of pests of cereals, sugar beets and oilseed rape (FCH, 1984).
This product is in the list of UNEP/FAO prior inform consent procedure.
Accidental ingestion of food contaminated with HCH has resulted in poisonings (Clayton, 1994).
Contamination of water has occurred from direct application of technical hexachlorocyclohexane or lindane to water for controlling mosquitoes, from the use of HCH in agriculture and forestry and, to a lesser extend, from occasional contamination of wastewater from manufacturing plants (WHO, 1984). Breastfed children can be exposed to HCH through breast milk (Amdur, 1991; UNEP/WHO, 1983).
The main sources of HCH in the human diet are milk, eggs, and other dairy products (WHO, 1984).
Production plant workers were exposed to HCH or lindane (Tomczak, 1981; Brassow, 1981)
Pesticide sprayers had been exposed during field spraying (Gupta, 1982).
Conjunctivitis and dermatitis have been reported but appeared to be unusual and were usually related to exceptionally heavy exposure (Hayes, 1991).
Acute toxicity may follow ingestion of large amount of HCH. Sub chronic or chronic toxicity may occur after ingestion of contaminated water or food (Macnamara, 1970). Ingestion is not the main route of entry of HCH except in breastfeeding of babies.
Studies done on occupationally exposed subjects showed that HCH may be absorbed by inhalation but no report of acute poisoning by that route of exposure has been found (Chattopadhyay, 1988; Chandra, 1992; Nigam, 1986). Absorption of HCH in the lungs is possible when these materials are used as dust or liquid sprays (Clayton, 1994).
HCH is readily absorbed through skin especially in occupational exposure (Chattopadhyay, 1988).
Serious accidental poisonings in general population occurred after dermal exposure to HCH (Clayton, 1994).
No data available.
No data available.
No data available.
HCH is absorbed from gastrointestinal tract, the lungs and the skin. Studies have demonstrated that absorption may vary from 80 to 95 % . Variation of dosage rates had no influence on the proportion absorbed but average absorption of the isomers differed from: alpha-HCH, 9.4 % ; beta-HCH, 90.7 % , gamma-HCH, 99.4 % ; delta-HCH, 91.9 % .
It is claimed that more rapid absorption of HCH occurs if it is administered with an alkyl surfactant. This increase in absorption is greater with single doses than with repeated doses (Clayton, 1981).
Peak values are reached in 2-5 days. After intraperitoneal injection, 34% of dose was recovered in faeces, mostly unchanged, and 5% in urine (Gosselin, 1984)
It has been shown that all isomers of HCH are distributed to all organs within 5 minutes after intraperitoneal injection (Nakajima, 1970). All isomers of HCH are preferentially stored in fat but over 30 times more isomer beta than gamma is stored at equivalent dosage levels.
It seems that there is a greater and more prolonged storage of the beta isomer (Amdur, 1991).
HCH have been detected in human milk and blood (IARC, 1979). Transplacental passage has been established. (IARC, 1979; Roncevic, 1987)
Intraperitoneally administered HCH was eliminated in rats at a rate of 5 to 10 % of a dose per day. (Amdur, 1991).
Whole body elimination half-lives for beta-isomers may vary from 37-71 days in rats (Richter, 1981).
Mammalian biotransformation of HCH isomers involves formation of chlorophenols (trichlorophenol, tetrachlorophenol and pentachlorophenol) that are then conjugated with sulphuric and glucuronic acids (National Research Council, 1977). Hepatic oxidative enzymes are induced by HCH (Gosselin, 1984). Increased liver enzymes have been reported in individuals exposed to technical grade HCH principally by inhalation in a pesticide formulating plant (Kashyap, 1986). In animal experiments, ingestion of alpha, beta, and gamma-HCH and technical grade HCH results in some degree of increased microsomal activity (Tryphonas & Iverson, 1983).
Trichlorophenol, tetrachlorophenol and pentachlorophenol and their conjugates of sulphuric and glucuronic acids are found in urine.
When single doses of 36Cl- labelled alpha-HCH and lindane were given intraperitoneally to rats at levels of 200 mg/kg bw and 40 mg/kg bw, respectively, approximately 80% of the total radioactivity was excreted in the urine and 20% in the faeces (IARC, 1979).
In rats, 65% of an intraperitoneal dose of 14C-alpha-HCH was excreted in the urine and 16 % in the faeces within 4 weeks (IARC, 1979).
beta-HCH is less efficiently excreted than other HCH isomers and is eliminated 5 times more slowly from the body than the other isomers.
HCH is also excreted in human milk. Although alpha, beta and gamma isomers were all found as residues in human milk, the alpha and gamma isomers are more rapidly metabolised and the beta isomers accounted for 90% of total HCH isomer residue (Amdur, 1991).
HCH isomers differ quantitatively and qualitatively in biological activity. The alpha and gamma HCH isomers are central nervous system stimulants causing violent epileptiform convulsions. The beta and delta isomers are mainly depressant (Gosselin, 1984; Lewis, 1999).
Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides act by altering the electrophysiological and associated enzymatic properties of nerve cell membranes, causing a change in the kinetics of Na+ and K+ ion flow through the membrane. Disturbances of calcium transport or Ca2+ - ATPase activity may also be involved, as well as phosphokinase activities (Hayes 1991). A major site of action of HCH and its isomers appear to be at the synapse in the rat (Hayes and Laws, 1991).
It seems that HCH and its isomers could act on the GABA receptor-linked chloride channel although the mechanism is highly complex and is still not completely elucidated (Hayes & Laws, 1991). In the nervous system, gamma-HCH is thought to interfere with the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) system by interacting with the GABA-A receptor-chloride channel complex at the picrotoxin binding site. Thus the seizures caused by gamma-HCH can be antagonized by GABA-A mimetics. Other suggestive data concerning mechanisms by which HCH causes neurological effects in animals includes enhanced synaptic activity, altered GABA functional activity, and inhibition of Na+ -K+-ATPase. (ATSDR, 1994, Ratra et. al, 2001).
In the liver, gamma-HCH is thought to act by interfering with hepatic oxidative capacity and glutathione metabolism. Another possible mechanism for hepatic toxicity is the increased lipid metabolism. Inhibition of Mg2+ATPase activity has been observed in rat liver tissue, suggesting an ATPase enzyme sensitivity to the action of gamma-HCH. The researchers suggested that some toxic effects appearing in mammals as a result of gamma-HCH exposure may arise from its influence on this ATPase activity. (ATSDR, 1994).
The dangerous acute dose of the technical mixture has been estimated at about 30 g (Lewis, 1999).
The mean lethal dose of technical HCH may be about 400 mg/kg when ingested by man (Gosselin, 1984).
Inhalation of more than 400 µg/kg within 3 days may cause toxic effects.
The fatal poisoning of a 5 years old girl weighting 22 Kg was caused by an accidental ingestion of 4.5 g of hexachlorocyclohexane as a 30 % solution in an unspecified organic solvent. This represents a dosage of 180 mg/kg.
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Oral: |
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LDLo (Guinea pig) |
1400 mg/kg |
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LD50 (Rat) |
100 mg/kg |
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LD50 (Mouse) |
59 mg/kg |
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LD50 (Chicken) |
597 mg/kg |
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LD50 (Quail-laboratory) |
120 mg/kg |
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LD50 (Bird-wild species) |
56 mg/kg |
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Dermal: |
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LD50 (Rat) |
900 mg/kg |
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(Lewis, 1996) |
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Inhalation: |
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LC50 (Rat) |
690 mg/m3 |
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(LOLI, 2000) |
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The beta isomer produces lameness of the CNS and a peculiar flaccidity of the entire musculature (Hayes, 1991).
In rats, the acute toxicity of isomers of HCH decreases in the order gamma < alpha < delta < beta. However, the toxicity of repeated doses decreases in the order beta < alpha < gamma < delta. The long-term toxicity of the different isomers is directly related to their adipose tissue storage and inversely related to their rate of metabolism (Hayes, 1991).
Significant decreases in total white blood cell counts and clotting time were reported in rats fed Vitamin A free diets containing technical HCH at a dose level of 50 mg/kg/day for 7 weeks (Joseph et al, 1992).
No data available.
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Australia: |
TWA 0.5 mg/m3; Skin |
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Belgium: |
TWA 0.5 mg/m3; Skin |
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Finland: |
TWA 0.5 mg/m3; Skin; Carcinogen |
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Germany: |
TWA 0.5 mg/m3; Skin |
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Hungary: |
TWA 0.5 mg/m3; STEL 0.1 mg/m3; Skin |
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Poland: |
MAC (TWA) 0.05 mg/m3 |
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MAC (STEL) 0.4 mg/m3 |
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Russia: |
TWA 0.05 mg/m3; Skin; STEL 0.1 mg/m3; Skin |
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Switzerland: |
TWA 0.5 mg/m3; Skin |
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United Kingdom: |
TWA 0.5mg/m3; STEL 1.5 mg/m3; Skin; |
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(RTECS, 2000) |
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FAO/WHO did not allocate ADI for technical HCH.
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has evaluated hexachlorocyclohexanes. They are classified under Group 2B. Evidence for carcinogenicity to humans is inadequate and evidence for carcinogenicity to animals is sufficient. (IARC, 1984).
Several case reports indicate a relationship between exposure to HCH or lindane and the occurrence of aplastic anaemia. An increase in lung cancer mortality was observed in agricultural workers who had used hexachlorocyclohexane (unspecified) and a variety of other pesticides and herbicides. Data available are insufficient for any conclusion to be drawn.
Technical grade alpha and beta-HCH and gamma isomer (lindane) produced liver tumours in mice when administered orally; the technical grade also produced lymphoreticular neoplasms. In two studies in rats, an increased incidence of liver tumours was observed with the gamma isomer, and in one study in rats a few thyroid tumours were observed with the gamma isomer; other studies were considered to be inadequate. Technical grade HCH and the gamma isomer were cancer tested inadequately by skin application in mice. alpha-HCH enhanced the incidence of liver neoplasms induced in rats by N-nitrosodiethylamine (IARC, 1979; IARC, 1984).
HCH isomers have been shown to cross placenta in animals. They are also present in human umbilical cord blood with foetal concentrations proportional to maternal concentrations (IARC, 1979)
HCH isomers given to pregnant mice are concentrated in the spleen, thymus and kidney of foetus with evidence of immune system alteration in the offsprings (Das, 1990).
Developmental toxicity studies in human have not been reported.
Technical-grade HCH, but not gamma-HCH, induced dominant lethal mutations in mice; chromosomal aberrations were not found in bone marrow cells of mice exposed to technical grade or gamma-HCH in vivo. gamma-HCH did not induce unscheduled DNA synthesis in human cells in vitro and did not induce micronuclei or chromosomal aberrations in cultured rodent cells; it induced DNA strand breaks but not unscheduled DNA synthesis. It did not induce sex linked recessive lethal mutations. beta-HCH was not mutagenic to yeast, but the gamma isomer induced gene conversion. Neither gamma nor beta-HCH were mutagenic to bacteria, and gamma and beta-HCH did not cause DNA damage in bacteria (IARC, 1984).
Xylene used as a solvent in commercial sheep-dip concentrate, enhances the toxicity of HCH (Clarke et. al, 1981)
Anything that causes mobilization of fat (starvation or administration of adrenaline, ACTH, or thyroid-stimulating hormone) will cause mobilization of highly fat soluble compounds and make them more readily available for metabolism and subsequent excretion (Hayes, 1991).
To be prepared by analytical toxicology experts.
Irritability and central nervous excitation: notably vomiting, restlessness, muscle spasm, ataxia, tonic and clonic convulsions. Subsequently, central nervous system depression leads to respiratory failure. Occasional dermatitis and urticaria may develop. Symptoms generally appears within 2 hours but sometimes as late as 12 hours (Gosselin, 1984).
Inhalation may cause irritation of nose and throat. There is no report of acute poisoning following inhalation of HCH in human.
HCH is absorbed through the skin and may lead to poisoning.
Eye exposure may cause irritation.
No data on systemic toxicity following eye exposure.
No data available.
No data available.
Chronic ingestion of HCH contaminated-bread has produced grand mal epilepsy (Clayton, 1994).
In animals, chronic ingestion of HCH induced marked histological changes in both the liver and the kidneys (Philip, 1989).
Workers exposed to HCH by inhalation showed paresthesia of the face and extremities, headache and giddiness and, a few of them also presented symptoms of malaise, vomiting, tremors, apprehension, confusion, insomnia, impaired memory and loss of libido (Nigam, 1986).
Symptoms of chronic skin exposure in workers are the same as those following inhalation but more severe and more frequent (Nigam, 1986).
No data available
No data available.
No data available.
Apprehension, excitability, dizziness, headache, disorientation, weakness, paresthesia, muscle twitching, tremor, tonic and clonic convulsion and unconsciousness are the major manifestations. Soon after ingestion, nausea and vomiting commonly occur. When chemicals are absorbed by skin, apprehension, twitching, tremors, confusion and convulsions may be the first symptoms. Respiratory depression is caused by the pesticide and by the petroleum solvents in which these pesticides are usually dissolved. Rhabdomyolysis may occur. Even though convulsive activity may be severe, the prognosis is fairly good. Although fatalities have occurred following absorption of large amounts of some organochlorine, there is a substantial likelihood of complete recovery if convulsions can be controlled, and vital functions sustained. (US EPA, 1982).
Acute: Cardiac arrhythmias may occur (Morgan, 1989).
Acute: Irritation, cyanosis, pulmonary oedema and chemical pneumonitis may occur (Morgan, 1989) (Jaeger, 1984).
Acute: CNS excitation: hyperexcitability, hyperreflexia, tremor, ataxia, agitation, convulsions.
In overdose, CNS depression is possible.
Chronic: Headache, dizziness, drowsiness, irritability, muscle twitching, myoclonic jerks and convulsions, anorexia, fatigue and malaise (Baker, 1990)
Paresthesia, numbness of extremities
Acute: Tremor and twitching are common.
No data available
Rhabdomyolysis has been reported (Jaeger,1984)
Nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea may occur following ingestion.
Acute: Hepatic oxidative enzymes are induced by HCH (Gosselin et. al, 1984).
Chronic: Hepatomegaly, liver cell changes were seen in rats (Philip et. al, 1989).
Acute: renal failure is secondary to rhabdomyolysis.
Chronic: Histological changes in kidneys have been reported in animals (Philip et. al, 1989).
No data available.
Chronic: Toxicity for human testis with decreased hormone production is suggested by findings among lindane production workers exposed to HCH (Tomczak et. al, 1981)
In sub chronic oral dosing studies, female rats showed ovarian atrophy with doses of 250 mg/kg. There was considerable general toxicity at this dose as well. HCH were found in higher concentrations in follicular fluid and cervical mucus in women with fertility problems (Van Velsen et. al, 1986).
Skin irritation results from extensive contact with HCH. Dermatitis and urticaria may occur (CHRIS, 1994).
Chronic: Elevated intra-ocular pressure and functional abnormalities in the central retinal artery of workers involved in the HCH synthesis have been reported (Sivickaja, 1982).
Chronic: Repeated exposure may lead to agranulocytosis or aplastic anaemia, even fatal (Gosselin et. al, 1984).
A statistically significant increase (app.18% ) in the level of IgM was noted in 19 workers exposed to technical grade HCH during formulation (Kashyap, 1986).
Acute: Severe metabolic acidosis may be a consequence of convulsions.
No data available.
Acute: Hyperpyrexia may occur in infant and children.
No data available.
No data available.
Pregnancy: HCH passes through the placenta.
Breast-feeding: HCH has been found in breast milk (UNEP/WHO, 1983).
In case of ingestion, do not induce vomiting and do not give milk, fat or oils by mouth.
Open and maintain at least one intravenous route.
Control the convulsions (see Convulsion Treatment Guide).
Administer activated charcoal.
Maintain clear airways.
Monitor CPK levels and myoglobinuria.
Atropine and adrenaline should be avoided in case of ECG changes.
To be completed by analytical committee.
To be completed by analytical committee.
Make a proper assessment of airway, breathing, circulation and neurological status of the patient.
Control convulsions using appropriate drug regimen.
Oxygen, intravenous dextrose and thiamine should also be given.
Lidocaine (1mg/kg bw as intravenous infusion followed by 2 – 4 mg/min as continuous infusion) may be indicated in the case of myocardial dysrrhythmias.
Monitor vital signs including ECG changes.
Protect airway in case of convulsions.
In case of skin contact: Remove and discard contaminated clothing. Wash skin with (soap and) copious amount of water for several minutes.
In case of ingestion, do not induce emesis.
Perform gastric lavage in case of ingestion.
Administer activated charcoal 50 – 100 g and cathartic that has been shown to reduce absorption of HCH.
Enhanced elimination procedures of already absorbed HCH are not indicated.
Not available.
Not available.
Since HCH is present in measurable amounts in the blood, fat and human milk along with PCBs and many other organochlorine insecticides, interactions and long-term effects of these contaminants on human health still need to be studied.
In Greece, seventy-nine persons were poisoned by a 40% dry powder of HCH or the same powder mixed with either water or a petroleum solvent which was sprinkled on ground, walls and over clothing, bedding and bodies of people. Symptoms were related to gastrointestinal tract and CNS. Eighteen were seriously affected but all survived (Danopoulos, 1953).
A woman who washed two calves with a HCH solution showed severe convulsions but survived. Her arms and hands had been wet to the elbows with the materials. One day after admission, a concentration of 4.95 mg/100 ml of HCH was found in urine (Heiberg, 1955).
An 8 year old boy ate about a dozen of chocolate biscuits which had been sprayed with a product containing 4% HCH. His condition was critical for 48 hours but he recovered fully after 72 hours (Macnamara, 1970).
Eight cases of HCH poisoning followed ingestion of food containing 4% HCH. Three of the victims suffered convulsions, coma, pulmonary oedema and death. Serious illness in the other victims was believed to have been prevented by vomiting (Nag D, 1977).
In a village in Uttas, India, eight persons were poisoned after ingesting wheat bread containing 0.005% HCH. Symptoms reported are grand mal epilepsy and all survived victims. It was found that wheat flour had been contaminated with HCH during storage (Clayton, 1981).
Occupational exposure to HCH in 45 males working in manufacture of hexachlorocyclohexane, including handlers (production workers likely to have the most exposure) and non-handlers (factory operator) has been studied. Exposure occurred primarily via skin. Subjective symptoms included paresthesia, headache, giddiness, vomiting, apprehension and insomnia (Chattopadhyay, 1988).
To be completed by each centre.
To be completed by each centre.
Not applicable.
Any individual coming into contact with HCH should be instructed in safe handling procedures and in need for strict personal hygiene. He should also be provided with protective equipment (special protective clothing, face shield or goggles) (HSDB, 2000).
Toxic for aquatic and terrestrial life; bio accumulates. Do not spill in motorways.
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|
Author: |
Dr N. Besbelli |
|
Address: |
Poison Center |
|
Tel: |
90 312 4337001 |
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Fax: |
90 312 4337000 |
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E-mail: |
besbelli@servis2.net.tr |
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Co-author: |
Lyse Lefebvre |
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Address: |
Institut National de Santé Publique du Québec |
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Tel: |
(418) 654 2254 |
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Fax: |
(418) 654 2148 |
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Peer Review: |
Awang R; Besbelli N, Caldas, LQA; |
See Also:
Toxicological Abbreviations
Hexachlorocyclohexane (mixed isomers) (ICSC)